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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

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    20 March 2003 – 2003 invasion of Iraq: In the early hours of the morning, the United States and three other countries begin military operations in Iraq.

    2003 invasion of Iraq

    The United States-led invasion[b] of the Republic of Iraq was the first stage of the Iraq War. The invasion began on 19 March 2003 and lasted just over one month,[26] including 26 days of major combat operations, in which a combined force of troops from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq. Twenty-two days after the first day of the invasion, the capital city of Baghdad was captured by coalition forces on 9 April after the six-day-long Battle of Baghdad. This early stage of the war formally ended on 1 May when U.S. President George W. Bush declared the "end of major combat operations" in his Mission Accomplished speech,[27] after which the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) was established as the first of several successive transitional governments leading up to the first Iraqi parliamentary election in January 2005. U.S. military forces later remained in Iraq until the withdrawal in 2011.[28]

    The coalition sent 160,000 troops into Iraq during the initial invasion phase, which lasted from 19 March to 1 May.[citation needed] About 73% or 130,000 soldiers were American, with about 45,000 British soldiers (25%), 2,000 Australian soldiers (1%), and 194 Polish soldiers (0.1%). Thirty-six other countries were involved in its aftermath. In preparation for the invasion, 100,000 U.S. troops assembled in Kuwait by 18 February.[29] The coalition forces also received support from the Peshmerga in Iraqi Kurdistan.

    According to U.S. President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair, the coalition aimed "to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction [WMD], to end Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism, and to free the Iraqi people", even though the UN inspection team led by Hans Blix had declared it had found no evidence of the existence of WMDs just before the start of the invasion.[30][31] Others place a much greater emphasis on the impact of the September 11 attacks, on the role this played in changing U.S. strategic calculations, and the rise of the freedom agenda.[32][33] According to Blair, the trigger was Iraq's failure to take a "final opportunity" to disarm itself of alleged nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons that U.S. and British officials called an immediate and intolerable threat to world peace.[34]

    In a January 2003 CBS poll, 64% of Americans had approved of military action against Iraq; however, 63% wanted Bush to find a diplomatic solution rather than go to war, and 62% believed the threat of terrorism directed against the U.S. would increase due to war.[35] The invasion was strongly opposed by some long-standing U.S. allies, including the governments of France, Germany, and New Zealand.[36][37][38] Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and that invading that country was not justified in the context of UNMOVIC's 12 February 2003 report. About 5,000 chemical warheads, shells or aviation bombs were discovered during the Iraq War, but these had been built and abandoned earlier in Saddam Hussein's rule before the 1991 Gulf War. The discoveries of these chemical weapons did not support the government's invasion rationale.[39][40] In September 2004, Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary-General at the time, called the invasion illegal under international law and said it was a breach of the UN Charter.[41]

    On 15 February 2003, a month before the invasion, there were worldwide protests against the Iraq War, including a rally of three million people in Rome, which the Guinness World Records listed as the largest-ever anti-war rally.[42] According to the French academic Dominique Reynié, between 3 January and 12 April 2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war.[43]

    The invasion was preceded by an airstrike on the Presidential Palace in Baghdad on 20 March 2003. The following day, coalition forces launched an incursion into Basra Governorate from their massing point close to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border. While special forces launched an amphibious assault from the Persian Gulf to secure Basra and the surrounding petroleum fields, the main invasion army moved into southern Iraq, occupying the region and engaging in the Battle of Nasiriyah on 23 March. Massive air strikes across the country and against Iraqi command and control threw the defending army into chaos and prevented an effective resistance. On 26 March, the 173rd Airborne Brigade was airdropped near the northern city of Kirkuk, where they joined forces with Kurdish rebels and fought several actions against the Iraqi Army, to secure the northern part of the country.

    The main body of coalition forces continued their drive into the heart of Iraq and were met with little resistance. Most of the Iraqi military was quickly defeated and the coalition occupied Baghdad on 9 April. Other operations occurred against pockets of the Iraqi Army, including the capture and occupation of Kirkuk on 10 April, and the attack on and capture of Tikrit on 15 April. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and the central leadership went into hiding as the coalition forces completed the occupation of the country. On 1 May, President George W. Bush declared an end to major combat operations: this ended the invasion period and began the period of military occupation.

    1. ^ Graham, Bradley (7 April 2003). "U.S. Airlifts Iraqi Exile Force For Duties Near Nasiriyah". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference USNewsandworldreport was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ [1][2]
    4. ^ Ephraim Kahana; Muhammad Suwaed (2009). The A to Z of Middle Eastern Intelligence. Scarecrow Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-8108-7070-3.
    5. ^ "Iraqi political groupings and individuals". middleeastreference.org.uk. Archived from the original on 5 March 2007.
    6. ^ Masters of Chaos, Chapter 13 p. 7 Archived 2012-02-14 at the Wayback Machine
    7. ^ "CNN.com - U.S.: Patriots down Iraqi missiles - Mar. 20, 2003". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
    8. ^ "CNN.com - Missile hits Kuwait City mall - Mar. 28, 2003". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
    9. ^ "Iraq launches Scud missiles | World news | The Guardian". amp.theguardian.com. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
    10. ^ Carter, Linwood B. (28 November 2005). "Iraq: Summary of U.S. Forces" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference PolishSpecialForces was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference MajPeltier was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Anthony H. Cordesman (28 June 2002). "If We Fight Iraq: Iraq and The Conventional Military Balance" (PDF). Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
    14. ^ Toby Dodge (16 November 2002). "Iraqi army is tougher than US believes". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2012.
    15. ^ Ricks, Thomas E. (2006). Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. Penguin. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-59420-103-5.
    16. ^ "IRAQ: Iraq's Prewar Military Capabilities". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 14 December 2018. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
    17. ^ "Foreign Irregulars in Iraq". washingtoninstitute.org. 10 April 2003. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
    18. ^ "Iraq Coalition Casualties: Fatalities by Year and Month" Archived 6 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine iCasualties.org. Retrieved 1 November 2009.
    19. ^ icasualties Iraq Coalition Casualties: U.S. Wounded Totals Archived 24 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    20. ^ Willing to face Death: A History of Kurdish Military Forces – the Peshmerga – from the Ottoman Empire to Present-Day Iraq (page 67) Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Michael G. Lortz
    21. ^ a b "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Commonwealth Institute of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
    22. ^ "Wages of War – Appendix 1. Survey of reported Iraqi combatant fatalities in the 2003 war". Commonwealth Institute of Cambridge. Archived from the original on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
    23. ^ "Body counts". By Jonathan Steele. The Guardian. 28 May 2003.
    24. ^ Iraq Body Count project Archived 9 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Source of IBC quote on undercounting by media is Press Release 15 :: Iraq Body Count.
    25. ^ Malovany, Pesach (21 July 2017). Wars of Modern Babylon: A History of the Iraqi Army from 1921 to 2003. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813169453 – via Google Books.
    26. ^ "U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Recent Conflicts" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. 29 November 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
    27. ^ "Political Circus: 'Mission Accomplished' finds a home". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
    28. ^ Gordon, Michael; Trainor, Bernard (1 March 1995). The Generals' War: The Inside Story of the Conflict in the Gulf. New York: Little Brown & Co.
    29. ^ "U.S. has 100,000 troops in Kuwait". CNN. 18 February 2003. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
    30. ^ Cite error: The named reference beginning1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    31. ^ "UN INSPECTORS FOUND NO EVIDENCE OF PROHIBITED WEAPONS PROGRAMMES AS OF 18 MARCH WITHDRAWAL, HANS BLIX TELLS SECURITY COUNCIL | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
    32. ^ "US Hardliners search for a Saddam connection". Gulf States Newsletter's Middle East Insider (9). September 2001. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
    33. ^ Oz Hassan (2012) Constructing America's Freedom Agenda for the Middle East
    34. ^ "President Bush Meets with Prime Minister Blair". Georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. 31 January 2003. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
    35. ^ "Poll: Talk First, Fight Later" Archived 30 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine. CBS, 24 January 2003. Retrieved 23 April 2007.
    36. ^ An exception was Denmark, where even the popular opinion supported the invasion and Denmark as a member of the coalition. Joint Declaration by Russia, Germany and France on Iraq France Diplomatie 10 February 2003
    37. ^ NZ praised for 'steering clear of Iraq war' Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine The Dominion Post, 7 December 2008.
    38. ^ Beltrame, Julian (31 March 2003). "Canada to Stay out of Iraq War". Maclean's. Archived from the original on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
    39. ^ Hoar, Jennifer (23 June 2006). "Weapons Found In Iraq Old, Unusable". CBS News. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
    40. ^ Chivers, C.J. (14 October 2014). "The Secret Casualties of Iraq's Abandoned Chemical Weapons". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 January 2015.
    41. ^ MacAskill, Ewen; Borger, Julian (15 September 2004). "Iraq war was illegal and breached UN charter, says Annan". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
    42. ^ "Guinness World Records, Largest Anti-War Rally". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 4 September 2004. Retrieved 11 January 2007.
    43. ^ Callinicos, Alex (19 March 2005). "Anti-war protests do make a difference". Socialist Worker. Archived from the original on 21 March 2006. Retrieved 9 December 2015.


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    21 March 1963 – Alcatraz, a federal penitentiary on an island in San Francisco Bay, closes.

    Alcatraz

    Redirect to:

     
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    22 March 1978 – Karl Wallenda of The Flying Wallendas dies after falling off a tight-rope between two hotels in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

    Karl Wallenda

    Karl Wallenda (/wɔːˈlɛndə/; January 21, 1905 – March 22, 1978) was a German-American high wire artist. He was the founder of The Flying Wallendas, a daredevil circus troupe whose members performed dangerous stunts far above the ground, often without a safety net.

     
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    23 March 1821 – Greek War of Independence: Battle and fall of city of Kalamata.

    Greek War of Independence

    The Greek War of Independence,[a] also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829.[3] In 1826, the Greeks were assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals, particularly the eyalet of Egypt. The war led to the formation of modern Greece, which would be expanded to its modern size in later years. The revolution is celebrated by Greeks around the world as independence day on 25 March every year.

    All Greek territory, except the Ionian Islands, the Mani Peninsula and some mountainous regions in Epirus came under Ottoman rule in the 15th century, in the decades surrounding the Fall of Constantinople.[4] During the following centuries, there were many Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. Most of these uprisings began in the independent Greek realm of the Mani Peninsula which was never conquered by the Ottomans, with the largest war culminating in 1770 during the Orlov Revolt.[5] In 1814, a secret organization called the Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by revolution, which was common in Europe at the time. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The insurrection was planned for 25 March 1821 (in the Julian Calendar), the Orthodox Christian Feast of the Annunciation. However, the plans of the Filiki Eteria were discovered by the Ottoman authorities, forcing the revolution to start earlier. The first revolt began on 21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. These events urged Greeks in the Peloponnese (Morea) into action and on 17 March 1821, the Maniots were first to declare war. In September 1821, the Greeks, under the leadership of Theodoros Kolokotronis, captured Tripolitsa. Revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece broke out, but were eventually suppressed. Meanwhile, makeshift Greek fleets achieved success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea.

    Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. The Ottoman Sultan called in Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son, Ibrahim Pasha, to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gains. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and brought most of the peninsula under Egyptian control by the end of that year. The town of Missolonghi fell in April 1826 after a year-long siege by the Turks. Despite a failed invasion of Mani, Athens also fell and revolutionary morale decreased.

    At that point, the three great powers—Russia, Britain, and France—decided to intervene, sending their naval squadrons to Greece in 1827. Following news that the combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleet was going to attack the island of Hydra, the allied European fleets intercepted the Ottoman navy at Navarino. After a tense week-long standoff, the Battle of Navarino led to the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet and turned the tide in favor of the revolutionaries. In 1828, the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure from a French expeditionary force. The Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese surrendered and the Greek revolutionaries proceeded to retake central Greece. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia allowing for the Russian army to move into the Balkans, near Constantinople. This forced the Ottomans to accept Greek autonomy in the Treaty of Adrianople and semi-autonomy for Serbia and the Romanian principalities.[6] After nine years of war, Greece was finally recognized as an independent state under the London Protocol of February 1830. Further negotiations in 1832 led to the London Conference and the Treaty of Constantinople, which defined the final borders of the new state and established Prince Otto of Bavaria as the first king of Greece.

    1. ^ Sakalis, Alex (25 March 2021). "The Italians Who Fought for Greek Independence". Italics Magazine. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
    2. ^ Note: Greece officially adopted the Gregorian calendar on 16 February 1923 (which became 1 March). All dates prior to that, unless specifically denoted, are Old Style.
    3. ^ "War of Greek Independence | History, Facts, & Combatants". See also: Cartledge, Yianni; Varnava, Andrekos, eds. (2022). Yianni Cartledge & Andrekos Varnava (eds.), New Perspectives on the Greek War of Independence: Myths, Realities, Legacies and Reflections, Palgrave Macmillan/Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10849-5. ISBN 978-3031108488. S2CID 253805406.
    4. ^ Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-0465008506.
    5. ^ Woodhouse, A Story of Modern Greece, 'The Dark Age of Greece (1453–1800)', p. 113, Faber and Faber (1968)
    6. ^ Bushkovitch, Paul (2012). A concise history of Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0521543231.


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    24 March 1989 – Exxon Valdez oil spill: In Prince William Sound in Alaska, the Exxon Valdez spills 240,000 barrels (38,000 m3) of petroleum after running aground.

    Exxon Valdez oil spill

    The Exxon Valdez oil spill was a major environmental disaster that made worldwide headlines in the spring of 1989 and occurred in Alaska's Prince William Sound on March 24, 1989. The spill occurred when Exxon Valdez, an oil supertanker owned by Exxon Shipping Company, bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef, 6 mi (9.7 km) west of Tatitlek, Alaska at 12:04 a.m. The tanker spilled approximately 10.8 million US gallons (260,000 bbl) (or 37,000 tonnes)[1] of crude oil over the next few days.[2]

    The Exxon Valdez spill is the second largest in U.S. waters, after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume of oil released.[3][4] Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and made existing response plans especially hard to implement. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals, and seabirds. The oil, extracted from the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field, eventually affected 1,300 miles (2,100 km) of coastline, of which 200 miles (320 km) were heavily or moderately oiled.[2][5][6]

    1. ^ "Properties of Prudhoe Bay (2004) (ESTS #679)" (PDF). Environment and Climate Change Canada. Government of Canada. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 7, 2017. Retrieved March 19, 2019.
    2. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference faq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference histories was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Leahy, Stephen (March 22, 2019). "Exxon Valdez changed the oil industry forever – but new threats emerge". National Geographic. Archived from the original on March 25, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference SpillAroundUs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Shigenaka, Gary (2014). "Twenty-Five Years After the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: NOAA's Scientific Support, Monitoring, and Research" (PDF). Office of Response and Restoration. Seattle: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved January 17, 2017.
     
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    25 March 1990 – The Happy Land fire was an arson fire that kills 87 people trapped inside an illegal nightclub in the New York City borough of The Bronx.

    Happy Land fire

    The Happy Land fire was an act of arson that killed 87 people on March 25, 1990 in the Bronx in New York City, United States. The 87 victims were trapped in the unlicensed Happy Land social club, located at 1959 Southern Boulevard in the West Farms section of the Bronx. Most of the victims were young Hondurans celebrating Carnival, many of them part of the Garifuna American community. Cuban refugee Julio González, whose former girlfriend was employed at the club, was arrested soon afterward and ultimately convicted of arson and murder.

    The fire was the deadliest in New York City since the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, which coincidentally occurred on the same day in 1911, and the deadliest in American territory since the Dupont Plaza Hotel fire in Puerto Rico in 1986 and the Winecoff Hotel Fire in 1946.[1][2]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference blumenthal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Diebel 2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    26 March 1939 – Spanish Civil War: Nationalists begin their final offensive of the war.

    Spanish Civil War

    The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra Civil Española)[note 2] was fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans and the Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the left-leaning Popular Front government of the Second Spanish Republic, and consisted of various socialist, communist, separatist, anarchist, and republican parties, some of which had opposed the government in the pre-war period.[13] The opposing Nationalists were an alliance of Falangists, monarchists, conservatives, and traditionalists led by a military junta among whom General Francisco Franco quickly achieved a preponderant role. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war had many facets and was variously viewed as class struggle, a religious struggle, a struggle between dictatorship and republican democracy, between revolution and counterrevolution, and between fascism and communism.[14] According to Claude Bowers, U.S. ambassador to Spain during the war, it was the "dress rehearsal" for World War II.[15] The Nationalists won the war, which ended in early 1939, and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975.

    The war began after the partial failure of the coup d'état of July 1936 against the Republican government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces, with General Emilio Mola as the primary planner and leader and having General José Sanjurjo as a figurehead. The government at the time was a coalition of Republicans, supported in the Cortes by communist and socialist parties, under the leadership of centre-left President Manuel Azaña.[16][17] The Nationalist faction was supported by a number of conservative groups, including CEDA, monarchists, including both the opposing Alfonsists and the religious conservative Carlists, and the Falange Española de las JONS, a fascist political party.[18] After the deaths of Sanjurjo, Emilio Mola and Manuel Goded Llopis, Franco emerged as the remaining leader of the Nationalist side.

    The coup was supported by military units in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba, and Seville. However, rebelling units in almost all important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control. Those cities remained under the control of the government, leaving Spain militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country. The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and Portugal, while the Republican side received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, continued to recognise the Republican government but followed an official policy of non-intervention. Despite this policy, tens of thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict. They fought mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades, which also included several thousand exiles from pro-Nationalist regimes.

    The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937. They also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. After much of Catalonia was captured in 1938 and 1939, and Madrid cut off from Barcelona, the Republican military position became hopeless. Following the fall without resistance of Barcelona in January 1939, the Francoist regime was recognised by France and the United Kingdom in February 1939. On 5 March 1939, in response to an alleged increasing communist dominance of the republican government and the deteriorating military situation, Colonel Segismundo Casado led a military coup against the Republican government, with the intention of seeking peace with the Nationalists. These peace overtures, however, were rejected by Franco. Following internal conflict between Republican factions in Madrid in the same month, Franco entered the capital and declared victory on 1 April 1939. Hundreds of thousands of Spaniards fled to refugee camps in southern France.[19] Those associated with the losing Republicans who stayed were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists. Franco established a dictatorship in which all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime.[18]

    The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired worldwide and for the many atrocities that occurred. Organised purges occurred in territory captured by Franco's forces so they could consolidate their future regime.[20] Mass executions on a lesser scale also took place in areas controlled by the Republicans,[21] with the participation of local authorities varying from location to location.[22][23]


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    1. ^ "Republican Army in Spain". Spartacus Educational.
    2. ^ Larrazáhal, R. Salas. "Aspectos militares de la Guerra Civil española". Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
    3. ^ Thomas (1961), p. 491.
    4. ^ "The Nationalist Army". Spartacus Educational.
    5. ^ "Warships of the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)". kbismarck.com.
    6. ^ Thomas (1961), p. 488.
    7. ^ a b Thomas, Hugh. The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. 1977 (and later editions).
    8. ^ a b Clodfelter 2017, p. 339.
    9. ^ a b Simkin, J. (2012). "Spanish Civil War". The Spanish Civil War Encyclopedia (Ser. Spanish Civil War). University of Sussex, Spartacus Educational E-Books.
    10. ^ Casanova, Julián. The Spanish Republic and Civil War. Cambridge University Press. 2010. New York. p. 181.
    11. ^ Maestre, Francisco; Casanova, Julián; Mir, Conxita; Gómez, Francisco (2004). Morir, matar, sobrevivir: La violencia en la dictadura de Franco. Grupo Planeta. ISBN 978-8484325062.
    12. ^ Jackson, Gabriel (1967). The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931–1939. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691007578.
    13. ^ Graham, Helen; Preston, Paul (1987). "The Spanish Popular Front and the Civil War". The Popular Front in Europe. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 106–130. ISBN 978-1349106189.
    14. ^ Juliá, Santos (1999). Un siglo de España. Política y sociedad. Madrid: Marcial Pons. ISBN 8495379031. Fue desde luego lucha de clases por las armas, en la que alguien podía morir por cubrirse la cabeza con un sombrero o calzarse con alpargatas los pies, pero no fue en menor medida guerra de religión, de nacionalismos enfrentados, guerra entre dictadura militar y democracia republicana, entre revolución y contrarrevolución, entre fascismo y comunismo.
    15. ^ Bowers, Claude G. (30 November 2019). My Mission to Spain. Watching the Rehearsal for World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster.
    16. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 43.
    17. ^ Preston 2006, p. 84.
    18. ^ a b Payne 1973, pp. 200–203.
    19. ^ "Refugees and the Spanish Civil War". History Today.
    20. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 88.
    21. ^ Beevor 2006, pp. 86–87.
    22. ^ Beevor 2006, pp. 260–271.
    23. ^ Julius Ruiz. El Terror Rojo (2011). pp. 200–211.


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    27 March 1836 – Texas Revolution: Goliad massacre – Antonio López de Santa Anna orders the Mexican army to kill about 400 Texas POWs at Goliad, Texas.

    Goliad massacre

    28°38′51″N 97°22′59″W / 28.6476°N 97.3830°W / 28.6476; -97.3830

    The Goliad massacre was an event of the Texas Revolution that occurred on March 27, 1836, following the Battle of Refugio and the Battle of Coleto; 425–445 prisoners of war from the Texian Army of the Republic of Texas were executed by the Mexican Army in the town of Goliad, Texas. The men surrendered under the belief they would be set free within a few weeks; however, this was not to be. Despite appeals for clemency by General José de Urrea, the massacre was carried out by Lt. Colonel José Nicolás de la Portilla, under orders from General and President of Mexico, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.

    The entire Texian force was killed, except for 28 men who feigned death and escaped. Among these was Herman Ehrenberg, who later wrote an account of the massacre; William Lockhart Hunter survived despite being bayoneted and clubbed with a musket. Because of the intervention of Francita Alavez (known as the "Angel of Goliad"), 20 more men were spared to act as doctors, interpreters, or workers. Also spared were the 75 soldiers of the Miller and Nashville Battalion, who were given white arm bands. Among those killed were commanders Colonel James Fannin (of the Coleto battle) and Lieutenant Colonel William Ward (of the Refugio battle).

     
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    28 March 1990 – President George H. W. Bush posthumously awards Jesse Owens the Congressional Gold Medal.

    Jesse Owens

    James Cleveland "Jesse" Owens (September 12, 1913 – March 31, 1980) was an American track and field athlete who won four gold medals at the 1936 Olympic Games.[3]

    Owens specialized in the sprints and the long jump and was recognized in his lifetime as "perhaps the greatest and most famous athlete in track and field history".[4] He set three world records and tied another, all in less than an hour, at the 1935 Big Ten track meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan, a feat that has never been equaled and has been called "the greatest 45 minutes ever in sport".[5]

    He achieved international fame at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany, by winning four gold medals: 100 meters, long jump, 200 meters, and 4 × 100-meter relay. He was the most successful athlete at the Games and, as a black American man, was credited with "single-handedly crushing Hitler's myth of Aryan supremacy".[6]

    The Jesse Owens Award is USA Track & Field's highest accolade for the year's best track and field athlete. Owens was ranked by ESPN as the sixth-greatest North American athlete of the 20th century and the highest-ranked in his sport. In 1999, he was on the six-man short-list for the BBC's Sports Personality of the Century.

    1. ^ "East Technical High School". Cleveland Metro Schools. April 5, 2017.
    2. ^ Edmondson, Jacqueline (2007). Jesse Owens: A Biography. US: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-313-33988-2. Retrieved September 6, 2014.
    3. ^ Treasure Trove: A Collection of ICSE Poems and Short Stories. Darya Ganj, New Delhi, India: Evergreen Publications Ltd. 2020. p. 103. ISBN 978-93-5063-700-5.
    4. ^ Litsky, Frank (1980), "Jesse Owens Dies of Cancer at 66", The New York Times, New York, retrieved March 23, 2014
    5. ^ Rothschild, Richard (May 24, 2010). "Greatest 45 minutes ever in sports". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on August 9, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2019.
    6. ^ Schwartz, Larry (2000). "Owens Pierced a Myth". ESPN Internet Ventures. Archived from the original on July 6, 2000.
     
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    29 March 1461 – Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton – Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Edward IV of England.

    Battle of Towton

    The Battle of Towton took place on 29 March 1461 during the Wars of the Roses, near Towton in North Yorkshire, and "has the dubious distinction of being probably the largest and bloodiest battle on English soil".[4] Fought for ten hours between an estimated 50,000 soldiers in a snowstorm on Palm Sunday, the Yorkist army achieved a decisive victory over their Lancastrian opponents. As a result, Edward IV deposed the Lancastrian Henry VI and secured the English throne.

    Henry VI succeeded his father Henry V when he was nine months old in 1422, but was a weak, ineffectual and mentally unsound ruler, which encouraged the nobles to scheme for control over him. The situation deteriorated in the 1450s into a civil war between his Beaufort relatives and Queen Margaret of Anjou on one side, with those of his cousin Richard, Duke of York, on the other. In October 1460, Parliament passed the Act of Accord naming York as Henry's successor, but neither the queen nor her Lancastrian allies would accept the disinheritance of her son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales. They raised a large army, who defeated and killed York and his second son Edmund at Wakefield in December. Financed by the City of London, York's son and heir, Edward, found enough backing to denounce Henry and declare himself king. The Battle of Towton was to affirm the victor's right through force of arms to rule over England.

    On reaching the battlefield, the Yorkists found themselves heavily outnumbered, since part of their force under the Duke of Norfolk had yet to arrive. The Yorkist leader Lord Fauconberg turned the tables by ordering his archers to take advantage of the strong wind to outrange their enemies. The one-sided missile exchange, with Lancastrian arrows falling short of the Yorkist ranks, provoked the Lancastrians into abandoning their defensive positions. The ensuing hand-to-hand combat lasted hours, exhausting the combatants. The arrival of Norfolk's men reinvigorated the Yorkists and, encouraged by Edward, they routed their foes. Many Lancastrians were killed while fleeing; some trampled one another and others drowned in the rivers, which are said to have run red with blood for several days. Several high-ranking prisoners were also executed.

    The strength of the House of Lancaster was severely reduced as a result of this battle. Henry fled the country and many of his most powerful followers were dead or in exile after the engagement, leaving a new king, Edward IV, to rule England. In 1929 the Towton Cross was erected on the battlefield to commemorate the event. Various archaeological remains and mass graves related to the battle have been found in the area centuries after the engagement.

    1. ^ a b Dean 2015, p. 35.
    2. ^ Ross 1997, p. 37.
    3. ^ Wolffe 2001, p. 332.
    4. ^ Gravett 2003, p. 7.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    30 March 1981 – President Ronald Reagan is shot in the chest outside a Washington, D.C., hotel by John Hinckley, Jr.

    Reagan assassination attempt

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
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    31 March 1889 – The Eiffel Tower is officially opened.

    Eiffel Tower

    The Eiffel Tower (/ˈfəl/ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

    Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.[8]

    The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

    The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

    1. ^ a b Bachman, Leonard R. (2019). Constructing the Architect: An Introduction to Design, Research, Planning, and Education. p. 80. ISBN 9781351665421.
    2. ^ a b "Eiffel Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
    3. ^ "Intermediate floor of the Eiffel tower".
    4. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
    5. ^ SETE. "The Eiffel Tower at a glance". Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
    6. ^ Tourism Statistics, "Visit Paris Region" site of the Paris Ile de France Visitors Bureau, retrieved March 22, 2022.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Clayson, S. Hollis (26 February 2020), "Eiffel Tower", Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0014, ISBN 978-0-19-092246-7, retrieved 14 November 2021
    9. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
     
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    1 April 1867 – Singapore becomes a British crown colony.

    Crown colony

    Coat of arms of King James I. In 1624, the Crown revoked the royal charter earlier granted to the Virginia Company, and assumed direct government of the colony

    A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony governed by England, and then Great Britain or the United Kingdom within the English and later British Empire. There was usually a governor to represent the Crown, appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the UK Government, with or without the assistance of a local council. In some cases, this council was split into two: an executive council and a legislative council, and the executive council was similar to the Privy Council that advises the monarch. Members of executive councils were appointed by the governors, and British citizens resident in Crown colonies either had no representation in local government, or limited representation in a lower house. In several Crown colonies, this limited representation grew over time. As the House of Commons of the British Parliament has never included seats for any of the colonies, there was no direct representation in the sovereign government for British subjects or citizens residing in Crown colonies.

    The administration of Crown colonies changed over time and in the 1800s some became, with a loosening of the power of royal governors, self-governing colonies, within which the sovereign state (the UK Government) delegated legislation for most local internal matters of governance to elected assemblies, with consent of the governor. Elected lower houses had their beginnings in the House of Burgesses of the Colony of Virginia in 1619 and the House of Assembly of the Parliament of Bermuda in 1620. While initially limited in government even with an elected lower house, over the centuries in some Crown colonies, more independent authority was given.

    All remaining British colonies, whether Crown (such as the Falkland Islands) or self-governing (such as Bermuda), were renamed "British Dependent Territories" from 1 January 1983 under the British Nationality Act 1981. Many British citizens in the colonies (with the exceptions of the Falkland Islanders and subsequently the Gibraltarians) found that their "Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies" had changed overnight to British Dependent Territories Citizenship, a form of British citizenship that stripped them of some of their rights, including the right to reside and work in the United Kingdom.[clarification needed] From 2002, the dependent territories have been known officially as British Overseas Territories.[1]

    1. ^ "British Overseas Territories Act 2002". Gov.Uk. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
     
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    2 April 1982 – Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.

    1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands

    The Invasion of the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Invasión de las Islas Malvinas), code-named Operation Rosario (Operación Rosario), was a military operation launched by Argentine forces on 2 April 1982, to capture the Falkland Islands, and served as a catalyst for the subsequent Falklands War. The Argentines mounted amphibious landings and the invasion ended with the surrender of Falkland Government House.

     
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    3 April 1974 – The Super Outbreak occurs, the biggest tornado outbreak in recorded history. The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured.

    Super Outbreak

    Super Outbreak may refer to:

     
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    4 April 1944 – World War II: First bombardment of Bucharest by Anglo-American forces kills 3000 civilians.

    Bombing of Bucharest in World War II

    The Bucharest World War II bombings were primarily Allied bombings of railroad targets and those of the Oil Campaign of World War II, but included a bombing by Nazi Germany after the 1944 coup d'état. Bucharest stored and distributed much of Ploiești's refined oil products.[1]: 190 [2]

    The first operation was a sequence of 17 aerial bombardments, starting with the one of April 4, 1944. The bombings were carried out over a period of about 4 months by the United States Air Force and the British Royal Air Force, with approximately 3,640 bombers of different types, accompanied by about 1,830 fighters. As collateral damage, 5,524 inhabitants were killed, 3,373 were injured, and 47,974 were left homeless.[3] The second operation was executed by the German Luftwaffe in retaliation for Romania having changed sides (immediately after the fall of the fascist regime headed by Ion Antonescu), and took place on August 23–26, 1944.[4]

    Taking into account the large number of victims and damage caused, the aerial bombings of 1944 represent the greatest tragedy in the history of Bucharest in the twentieth century.[5]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stout was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Dobrovicescu, Lucian. "Aprilie 1944. Moartea vine din cer: Bombardamentele aliate asupra României" [April 1944. Death comes from the sky: Allied bombing of Romania] (in Romanian). Historia. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
    3. ^ "Bombardarea Bucureștilor în '44: mii de morți și sute de clădiri făcute praf" [The bombing of Bucharest in '44: thousands killed and hundreds of buildings destroyed]. Adevărul (in Romanian). February 22, 2011. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
    4. ^ Armă, Alexandru (2019). "24 august 1944: Avioanele germane bombardează Bucureștiul" [August 24, 1944: German planes bomb Bucharest] (in Romanian). Historia. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
    5. ^ Armă, Alexandru (2016). Rănile unui oraș: București bombardat (4 aprilie–26 august 1944) [Wounds of a city: Bucharest bombed (April 4–August 26, 1944)] (in Romanian). București: Editura Vremea. ISBN 978-9736457852. OCLC 988771379.
     
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    5 April 1958 – Ripple Rock, an underwater threat to navigation in the Seymour Narrows in Canada is destroyed in one of the largest non-nuclear controlled explosions of the time.

    Ripple Rock

    Ripple Rock (French: Roche Ripple)[1] is an underwater mountain located in the Seymour Narrows of the Discovery Passage in British Columbia, Canada. It had two peaks (2.74 metres and 6.4 metres below the surface at low tide) that produced large, dangerous eddies from the strong tidal currents that flowed around them at low tide. Ships transiting the strait preferred to wait until slack tide in order to safely bypass the rock.[2]

    The hazardous nature of the rock prompted the Canadian government to remove the top of the mountain in a controlled explosion on 5 April 1958.[3] The event was one of the first live coast-to-coast television broadcasts of an event in Canada[4] and was designated a National Historic Event of Canada.

    1. ^ "Ripple Rock". BC Geographical Names.
    2. ^ Popular Mechanics. Hearst Magazines. June 1956. p. 120.
    3. ^ "Canadians Destroy Rock Periling Ships In 1,375-Ton Blast". New York Times. CAMPBELL RIVER, B. C. April 6, 1958. p. 1. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
    4. ^ B.C.'s deadly Ripple Rock blown up, CBC Broadcast Date: April 5, 1958
     
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    6 April 1974 – ABBA win the 19th annual Eurovision Song Contest in Brighton with Waterloo.

    Waterloo (ABBA song)

    Redirect to:

     
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    7 April 1922 – Teapot Dome scandal: United States Secretary of the Interior leases Teapot Dome petroleum reserves in Wyoming.

    Teapot Dome scandal

    Oil businessman Edward L. Doheny (at table, second from right) testifying before the U.S. Senate committee investigating the Teapot Dome oil leases in 1924

    The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery scandal involving the administration of United States President Warren G. Harding from 1921 to 1923. Secretary of the Interior Albert Bacon Fall had leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming, as well as two locations in California, to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding.[1] The leases were the subject of an investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, Fall became the first presidential cabinet member to go to prison, but no one was convicted of paying the bribes.

    Before the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the "greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics".[2] It permanently damaged the reputation of the Harding administration, already hurt by its handling of the Great Railroad Strike of 1922 and Harding's 1922 veto of the Bonus Bill.[3]

    Congress subsequently passed permanent legislation granting itself subpoena power over tax records of any U.S. citizen, regardless of position.[4] These laws are also considered to have empowered Congress generally.[5]

    1. ^ "Teapot Dome Scandal". HISTORY. June 10, 2019. Retrieved April 14, 2020.
    2. ^ Cherny, Robert W. "Graft and Oil: How Teapot Dome Became the Greatest Political Scandal of its Time". History Now. Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Archived from the original on July 9, 2010. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
    3. ^ "Warren G Harding: Domestic & foreign affairs", Grant-Eisenhower, President profiles.
    4. ^ Paletta, Damian (April 9, 2019). "Mnuchin reveals White House lawyers consulted Treasury on Trump tax returns, despite law meant to limit political involvement". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
    5. ^ Jurecic, Quinta (May 11, 2020). "The Supreme Court Case That Could Destroy the Balance of Powers". The Atlantic. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
     
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    8 April 2005 – Over four million people attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II.

    Funeral of Pope John Paul II

     
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    9 April 1957 – The Suez Canal in Egypt is cleared and opens to shipping.

    Suez Canal

    The Suez Canal (Arabic: قَنَاةُ ٱلسُّوَيْسِ, Qanāt as-Suwais) is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez and dividing Africa and Asia (and by extension, the Sinai Peninsula from the rest of Egypt). The 193.30-kilometre-long (120.11 mi) canal is a key trade route between Europe and Asia.

    In 1858, Ferdinand de Lesseps formed the Suez Canal Company for the express purpose of building the canal. Construction of the canal lasted from 1859 to 1869. The canal officially opened on 17 November 1869. It offers vessels a direct route between the North Atlantic and northern Indian oceans via the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, avoiding the South Atlantic and southern Indian oceans and reducing the journey distance from the Arabian Sea to London by approximately 8,900 kilometres (5,500 mi), to 10 days at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph) or 8 days at 24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph).[1] The canal extends from the northern terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. In 2021, more than 20,600 vessels traversed the canal (an average of 56 per day).[2]

    The original canal featured a single-lane waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass and the Great Bitter Lake.[3] It contained, according to Alois Negrelli's plans, no locks, with seawater flowing freely through it. In general, the water in the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez.[4]

    The canal was the property of the Egyptian government, but European shareholders, mostly British and French, owned the concessionary company which operated it until July 1956, when President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised it—an event which led to the Suez Crisis of October–November 1956.[5] The canal is operated and maintained by the state-owned Suez Canal Authority[6] (SCA) of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used "in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag."[7] Nevertheless, the canal has played an important military strategic role as a naval short-cut and choke point. Navies with coastlines and bases on both the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea (Egypt and Israel) have a particular interest in the Suez Canal. After Egypt closed the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Six-Day War on 5 June 1967, the canal remained closed for eight years, reopening on 5 June 1975.[8]

    The Egyptian government launched construction in 2014 to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km (22 mi) to speed up the canal's transit time. The expansion intended to nearly double the capacity of the Suez Canal, from 49 to 97 ships per day.[9] At a cost of LE 59.4 billion (US$9 billion), this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities and individuals.

    The Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel in 2016. This side channel, at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal. As the East Container Terminal is located on the Canal itself, before the construction of the new side channel it was not possible to berth or unberth vessels at the terminal while a convoy was running.[10]

    Aerial view of the Suez Canal at Suez
    1. ^ "The Suez Canal – A vital shortcut for global commerce" (PDF). World Shipping Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
    2. ^ "Number of ships passing through the Suez Canal from 1976 to 2021". Statista. 31 March 2022.
    3. ^ "Suez Canal Authority". Archived from the original on 13 June 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
    4. ^ Elaine Morgan; Stephen Davies (1995). The Red Sea Pilot. Imray Laurie Norie & Wilson. p. 266. ISBN 9780852885543.
    5. ^ "Suez Crisis". History.com. A&E Television Networks. 9 November 2009. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
    6. ^ "SCA Overview". Suez Canal Authority. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 25 July 2019.
    7. ^ Constantinople Convention of the Suez Canal of 2 March 1888 still in force and specifically maintained in Nasser's Nationalization Act.
    8. ^ Feyrer, James. "Distance, Trade, and Income – The 1967 to 1975 Closing of the Suez Canal as a Natural Experiment" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
    9. ^ "New Suez Canal project proposed by Egypt to boost trade". caironews.net. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
    10. ^ "Egypt opens East Port Said side channel for navigation". Xinhua. Archived from the original on 25 February 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
     
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    10 April 1963 – 129 people die when the submarine USS Thresher sinks at sea.

    USS Thresher (SSN-593)

    USS Thresher (SSN-593) was the lead boat of her class of nuclear-powered attack submarines in the United States Navy. She was the U.S. Navy's second submarine to be named after the thresher shark.

    On 10 April 1963, Thresher sank during deep-diving tests about 350 km (220 mi) east of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, killing all 129 crew and shipyard personnel aboard. Her loss was a watershed for the U.S. Navy, leading to the implementation of a rigorous submarine safety program known as SUBSAFE. The first nuclear submarine lost at sea, Thresher was also the third of four submarines lost with more than 100 people aboard, the others being the French Surcouf, sinking with 130 personnel in 1942, USS Argonaut, lost with 102 aboard in 1943, and Russian Kursk, which sank with 118 aboard in 2000.[1][2]

    1. ^ Duddu, Praveen (6 March 2014). "Peril in the depths – the world's worst submarine disasters". Navaltechnology.com. Retrieved 7 August 2018.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Polmar was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    11 April 1970 – Apollo 13 is launched.

    Apollo 13

    Apollo 13 (April 11–17, 1970) was the seventh crewed mission in the Apollo space program and the third meant to land on the Moon. The craft was launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 11, 1970, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank in the service module (SM) ruptured two days into the mission, disabling its electrical and life-support system. The crew, supported by backup systems on the lunar module (LM), instead looped around the Moon in a circumlunar trajectory and returned safely to Earth on April 17. The mission was commanded by Jim Lovell, with Jack Swigert as command module (CM) pilot and Fred Haise as lunar module (LM) pilot. Swigert was a late replacement for Ken Mattingly, who was grounded after exposure to rubella.

    A routine stir of an oxygen tank ignited damaged wire insulation inside it, causing an explosion that vented the contents of both of the SM's oxygen tanks to space.[note 1] Without oxygen, needed for breathing and for generating electric power, the SM's propulsion and life support systems could not operate. The CM's systems had to be shut down to conserve its remaining resources for reentry, forcing the crew to transfer to the LM as a lifeboat. With the lunar landing canceled, mission controllers worked to bring the crew home alive.

    Although the LM was designed to support two men on the lunar surface for two days, Mission Control in Houston improvised new procedures so it could support three men for four days. The crew experienced great hardship, caused by limited power, a chilly and wet cabin and a shortage of potable water. There was a critical need to adapt the CM's cartridges for the carbon dioxide scrubber system to work in the LM; the crew and mission controllers were successful in improvising a solution. The astronauts' peril briefly renewed public interest in the Apollo program; tens of millions watched the splashdown in the South Pacific Ocean on television.

    An investigative review board found fault with preflight testing of the oxygen tank and Teflon being placed inside it. The board recommended changes, including minimizing the use of potentially combustible items inside the tank; this was done for Apollo 14. The story of Apollo 13 has been dramatized several times, most notably in the 1995 film Apollo 13 based on Lost Moon, the 1994 memoir co-authored by Lovell – and an episode of the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.

    1. ^ "Apollo 13 CM". N2YO.com. Retrieved August 18, 2019.
    2. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 309.
    3. ^ "Apollo 13 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    4. ^ "Apollo 13 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    5. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 307.
    6. ^ "Apollo 13". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
    7. ^ Williams, David. "The Apollo 13 accident". NASA. The Apollo 13 malfunction was caused by an explosion and rupture of oxygen tank no. 2 in the service module.
    8. ^ Cortright 1975, pp. 248–249: "I did, of course, occasionally think of the possibility that the spacecraft explosion might maroon us... Thirteen minutes after the explosion, I happened to look out of the left-hand window, and saw the final evidence pointing toward potential catastrophe. "
    9. ^ Accident report, p. 143.
    10. ^ Cooper 2013, p. 21: "Later, in describing what happened, NASA engineers avoided using the word "explosion;" they preferred the more delicate and less dramatic term "tank failure," and in a sense it was the more accurate expression, inasmuch as the tank did not explode in the way a bomb does but broke open under pressure."


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

     
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    12 April 1955 – The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective.

    Polio vaccine

    Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio).[2][3] Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by injection (IPV) and a weakened poliovirus given by mouth (OPV).[2] The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends all children be fully vaccinated against polio.[2] The two vaccines have eliminated polio from most of the world,[4][5] and reduced the number of cases reported each year from an estimated 350,000 in 1988 to 33 in 2018.[6][7]

    The inactivated polio vaccines are very safe.[2] Mild redness or pain may occur at the site of injection.[2] Oral polio vaccines cause about three cases of vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis per million doses given.[2] This compares with 5,000 cases per million who are paralysed following a polio infection.[8] Both types of vaccine are generally safe to give during pregnancy and in those who have HIV/AIDS but are otherwise well.[2] However, the emergence of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV), a form of the vaccine virus that has reverted to causing poliomyelitis, has led to the development of novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2) which aims to make the vaccine safer and thus stop further outbreaks of cVDPV2.[9]

    The first successful demonstration of a polio vaccine was by Hilary Koprowski in 1950, with a live attenuated virus which people drank.[10] The vaccine was not approved for use in the United States, but was used successfully elsewhere.[10] The success of an inactivated (killed) polio vaccine, developed by Jonas Salk, was announced in 1955.[2][11] Another attenuated live oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin and came into commercial use in 1961.[2][12]

    Polio vaccine is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[13][14]

    1. ^ Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
    2. ^ a b c d e f g h i World Health Organization (2016). "Polio vaccines: WHO position paper – March, 2016". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 91 (12): 145–68. hdl:10665/254399. PMID 27039410.
    3. ^ World Health Organization (2022). "Polio vaccines: WHO position paper – June 2022". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 97 (25): 277–300. hdl:10665/357168.
    4. ^ Aylward RB (2006). "Eradicating polio: today's challenges and tomorrow's legacy". Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 100 (5–6): 401–413. doi:10.1179/136485906X97354. PMID 16899145. S2CID 25327986.
    5. ^ Schonberger LB, Kaplan J, Kim-Farley R, Moore M, Eddins DL, Hatch M (1984). "Control of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 6 (Suppl 2): S424–S426. doi:10.1093/clinids/6.Supplement_2.S424. PMID 6740085.
    6. ^ "Global Wild Poliovirus 2014–2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
    7. ^ "Does polio still exist? Is it curable?". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
    8. ^ "Poliomyelitis". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
    9. ^ "GPEI-nOPV2". Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
    10. ^ a b Fox M (20 April 2013). "Hilary Koprowski, Who Developed First Live-Virus Polio Vaccine, Dies at 96". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
    11. ^ Bazin H (2011). Vaccination: A History. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 395. ISBN 978-2742007752. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.
    12. ^ Smith DR, Leggat PA (2005). "Pioneering figures in medicine: Albert Bruce Sabin – inventor of the oral polio vaccine". The Kurume Medical Journal. 52 (3): 111–116. doi:10.2739/kurumemedj.52.111. PMID 16422178.
    13. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
    14. ^ World Health Organization (2021). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
     
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    13 April 1992 – The Great Chicago Flood.

    Chicago Flood

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    14 April 1881 – The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight is fought in El Paso, Texas.

    Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight

    The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight was a famous gun fight that occurred on April 14, 1881, on El Paso Street, in El Paso, Texas. Witnesses generally agreed that the incident lasted no more than five seconds after the first gunshot, though a few would insist it was at least ten seconds. Marshal Dallas Stoudenmire accounted for three of the four fatalities with his twin .44 caliber Smith & Wesson revolvers.

     
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    15 April 1989 – Hillsborough disaster: A human crush occurs at Hillsborough Stadium, home of Sheffield Wednesday, in the FA Cup Semi Final, resulting in the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans.

    Hillsborough disaster

    The Hillsborough disaster was a fatal crowd crush at a football match at Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England, on 15 April 1989. It occurred during an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest in the two standing-only central pens in the Leppings Lane stand allocated to Liverpool supporters. Shortly before kick-off, in an attempt to ease overcrowding outside the entrance turnstiles, the police match commander, David Duckenfield, ordered exit gate C to be opened, leading to an influx of supporters entering the pens.[1] This resulted in overcrowding of those pens and the crush. With 97 deaths and 766 injuries, it has the highest death toll in British sporting history.[2] Ninety-four people died on the day; another person died in hospital days later, and another victim died in 1993. In July 2021, a coroner ruled that Andrew Devine, who died 32 years later, after suffering severe and irreversible brain damage on the day, was the 97th victim.[3] The match was abandoned and restaged at Old Trafford in Manchester on 7 May 1989; Liverpool won and went on to win that season's FA Cup.

    In the following days and weeks, South Yorkshire Police (SYP) fed the press false stories suggesting that football hooliganism and drunkenness by Liverpool supporters had caused the disaster. Blaming Liverpool fans persisted even after the Taylor Report of 1990, which found that the main cause was a failure of crowd control by SYP.[4] Following the Taylor Report, the Director of Public Prosecutions ruled there was no evidence to justify prosecution of any individuals or institutions.[4] The disaster led to a number of safety improvements in the largest English football grounds, notably the elimination of fenced standing terraces in favour of all-seater stadiums in the top two tiers of English football.[5][6]

    The first coroner's inquests into the Hillsborough disaster, completed in 1991, concluded with verdicts of "accidental death" in respect of all the deceased.[7] Families disputed the findings,[4] and fought to have the case re-opened. In 1997 Lord Justice Stuart-Smith concluded that there was no justification for a new inquiry.[4] Private prosecutions brought by the Hillsborough Families Support Group against Duckenfield and his deputy Bernard Murray failed in 2000.[4] In 2009 a Hillsborough Independent Panel was formed to review the evidence.[4][8] Reporting in 2012, it confirmed Taylor's 1990 criticisms and revealed details about the extent of police efforts to shift blame onto fans, the role of other emergency services and the error of the first coroner's inquests.[9][10][11] The panel's report resulted in the previous findings of accidental death being quashed, and the creation of new coroner's inquests. It also produced two criminal investigations led by police in 2012: Operation Resolve to look into the causes of the disaster, and by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) to examine actions by police in the aftermath.[12]

    The second coroner's inquests were held from 1 April 2014 to 26 April 2016.[13] They ruled that the supporters were unlawfully killed owing to grossly negligent failures by police and ambulance services to fulfil their duty of care.[1][4] The inquests also found that the design of the stadium contributed to the crush, and that supporters were not to blame for the dangerous conditions.[13] Public anger over the actions of their force during the second inquests led to the suspension of the SYP chief constable, David Crompton, following the verdict.[14] In June 2017, six people were charged with offences including manslaughter by gross negligence, misconduct in public office and perverting the course of justice for their actions during and after the disaster. The Crown Prosecution Service subsequently dropped all charges against one of the defendants.[15]

    1. ^ a b Turner, Richard (28 April 2016). "Five Hillsborough myths dispelled by inquests jury". BBC News Online. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    2. ^ "1989: Football fans crushed at Hillsborough". BBC News. BBC. 15 April 1989. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    3. ^ Conn, David; Vinter, Robyn (28 July 2021). "Liverpool fan's death ruled as 97th of Hillsborough disaster". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
    4. ^ a b c d e f g "Hillsborough Disaster: From tragedy to truth". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    5. ^ Rumsby, Ben (26 April 2016). "The legacy of Hillsborough – how football has changed". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 25 May 2019. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    6. ^ Gibson, Owen (13 April 2009). "Out of the ashes of Hillsborough, modern football was born". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    7. ^ Gibson, Owen (19 December 2012). "High court quashes Hillsborough inquest verdicts". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 7 August 2016.
    8. ^ Conn, David (17 April 2009). "Not 'justice' but full truth may finally be possible for Hillsborough victims". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    9. ^ "Hillsborough papers: Cameron apology over 'double injustice'". BBC News. 12 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    10. ^ Gibson, Owen; Conn, David; Siddique, Haroon (12 September 2012). "Hillsborough disaster: David Cameron apologises for 'double injustice'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
    11. ^ "Hillsborough report: Key findings". BBC News. 12 September 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
    12. ^ "Hillsborough – the investigation". ipcc.gov.uk. Independent Police Complaints Commission. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
    13. ^ a b Conn, David (26 April 2016). "Hillsborough inquests jury rules 96 victims were unlawfully killed". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
    14. ^ Dodd, Vikram; Stewart, Heather (27 April 2016). "South Yorkshire police chief suspended after Hillsborough verdict". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
    15. ^ Conn, David (21 October 2021). "The great betrayal: how the Hillsborough families were failed by the justice system". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
     
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    16 April 1799 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Mount Tabor – Napoleon drives Ottoman Turks across the River Jordan near Acre.

    Battle of Mount Tabor

    Battle of Mount Tabor may refer to several events in history, including:

     
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    17 April 1986 – The Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War between the Netherlands and the Isles of Scilly ends.

    Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War

    The Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War (Dutch: Driehonderdvijfendertigjarige Oorlog, Cornish: Bell a dri hans pymthek warn ugens) was an alleged state of war between the Netherlands and the Isles of Scilly (located off the southwest coast of Great Britain). It is said to have been extended by the lack of a peace treaty for 335 years without a single shot being fired, which would make it one of the world's longest wars, and a bloodless war. Despite the uncertain validity of the declaration of war, and thus uncertainty about whether or not a state of war ever actually existed, peace was finally declared in 1986, bringing an end to any hypothetical war that may have been legally considered to exist.

     
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    19 April 1927 – Mae West is sentenced to 10 days in jail for obscenity for her play Sex.

    Sex (play)

    Sex is a 1926 play written by and starring Mae West, who used the pen name "Jane Mast".[1] Staged on Broadway, the play received bad reviews, but was a commercial success. It was eventually shut down by the New York City Police Department due to obscenity, and West spent 10 days in jail because of it.

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference ibdb was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    20 April 1998 – German terrorist group the Red Army Faction announces their dissolution after 28 years.

    Red Army Faction

    The Red Army Faction (RAF, German: [ɛʁʔaːˈʔɛf] ; German: Rote Armee Fraktion, pronounced [ˌʁoː.tə aʁˈmeː fʁakˌt͡si̯oːn] ),[a] also known as the Baader–Meinhof Group or Baader–Meinhof Gang (German: Baader-Meinhof-Gruppe, Baader-Meinhof-Bande, German: [ˈbaːdɐ ˈmaɪ̯nˌhɔf ˈɡʁʊpə] ), was a West German far-left militant group founded in 1970 and active until 1998. The RAF described itself as a communist and anti-imperialist urban guerrilla group. It was engaged in armed resistance against what it considered a fascist state. Members of the RAF generally used the Marxist–Leninist term faction when they wrote in English.[3] Early leadership included Andreas Baader, Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin, and Horst Mahler. The West German government considered the RAF a terrorist organization.[b]

    The RAF engaged in a series of bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, bank robberies, and shootouts with police over the course of three decades. Its activities peaked in late 1977, which led to a national crisis that became known as the "German Autumn". The RAF has been held responsible for 34 deaths, including industrialist Hanns Martin Schleyer, the Dresdner Bank head Jürgen Ponto, federal prosecutor Siegfried Buback, police officers, American servicemen stationed in Germany,[4] as well as many cases of collateral damage, such as chauffeurs and bodyguards, with many others injured throughout its almost thirty years of activity; 26 RAF members or supporters were killed.[4] Although better-known, the RAF conducted fewer attacks than the Revolutionary Cells, which is held responsible for 296 bomb attacks, arson and other attacks between 1973 and 1995.[5] The group was motivated by leftist political concerns and the perceived failure of their parents' generation to confront Germany's Nazi past,[4] and received support from Stasi and other Eastern Bloc security services.[6][dubious ]

    Sometimes, the group is talked about in terms of generations:

    • the "first generation", which consisted of Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof and others;
    • the "second generation", after the majority of the first generation was arrested in 1972; and
    • the "third generation", which existed in the 1980s and 1990s up to 1998, after the first generation died in Stammheim maximum security prison in 1977.

    On 20 April 1998, an eight-page typewritten letter in German was faxed to the Reuters news agency, signed "RAF" with the submachine-gun red star, declaring that the group had dissolved.[7] In 1999, after a robbery in Duisburg, evidence pointing to Ernst-Volker Staub and Daniela Klette was found, causing an official investigation into a re-founding.[8]

    1. ^ Dapprich, Matthias (2013). The historical development of West Germany's new left from a politico-theoretical perspective with particular emphasis on the Marxistische Gruppe and Maoist KGruppen. Books on Demand GmbH. p. 49. ISBN 9783746098456. The legitimacy of violent and political resistance was also stressed by Mao Zedong, who was widely cited by the RAF in its first public statements. In contrast to the violent resistance of terrorist factions, political Maoists stressed the importance of political resistance to the bourgeois society.
    2. ^ McDevitt, Matthew (2019). Gewalt und Gedächtnis: An Examination of Gerhard Richter's 18. Oktober 1977 in Relation to the West German Mass Media. Trinity College Digital Repository. p. 20. Acting on Carlos Marighella's influential Minimanual of the Urban Guerilla and the Maoist tenet that bringing the armed struggle from the fringes of society to the center of the metropole is the necessary precondition for meaningfully altering the superstructure, the RAF attempted to aggravate the Federal Republic into overreacting, thus exposing the unrelenting and unsympathetic mechanisms of the state.
    3. ^ Wagner, Rolf Clemens (13 May 1998). "'We Are Not Political Idiots!': Thoughts On The End Of The Red Army Fraction (RAF)". Jungle World. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011 – via Hartford Web Publishing.
    4. ^ a b c Connolly, Kate (24 September 2008). "Terrorist chic or debunking of a myth? Baader Meinhof film splits Germany". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 June 2021.
    5. ^ IM.NRW.de Archived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Innenministerium Nordrhein-Westfalen: Revolutionäre Zellen und Rote Zora.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "RAF-Auflösungserklärung" (in German). Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
    8. ^ Verfassungsschutzbericht Nordrhein-Westfalen 2001: "Rote Armee Fraktion", 2001, pp. 42 ff. (Archived 14 September 2004 at the Wayback Machine)


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    21 April 1989 – Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989: In Beijing, around 100,000 students gather in Tiananmen Square to commemorate Chinese reform leader Hu Yaobang.

    Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989

     
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    22 April 1954 – Red Scare: Witnesses begin testifying and live television coverage of the Army-McCarthy Hearings begins.

    Army-McCarthy Hearings

    • From other capitalisation: This is a redirect from a title with another method of capitalisation. It leads to the title in accordance with the Wikipedia naming conventions for capitalisation, or it leads to a title that is associated in some way with the conventional capitalisation of this redirect title. This may help writing, searching and international language issues.
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    23 April 1985 – Coca-Cola changes its formula and releases New Coke. The response is overwhelmingly negative, and the original formula is back on the market in less than 3 months.

    New Coke

    New Coke was the unofficial name of a reformulation of the soft drink Coca-Cola, introduced by The Coca-Cola Company in April, 1985. It was renamed Coke II in 1990,[1] and discontinued in July 2002.

    By 1985, Coca-Cola had been losing market share to diet soft drinks and non-cola beverages for several years. Blind taste tests suggested that consumers preferred the sweeter taste of the competing product Pepsi-Cola, and so the Coca-Cola recipe was reformulated. The American public reacted negatively, and New Coke was considered a major failure.

    The company reintroduced the original formula within three months, rebranded "Coca-Cola Classic", resulting in a significant sales boost. This led to speculation that the New Coke formula had been a ploy to stimulate sales of the original Coca-Cola, which the company has vehemently denied.[2] The story of New Coke remains influential as a cautionary tale against tampering with an established successful brand.

    1. ^ Jamieson, Sean (April 5, 1990). "Coke II makes its Spokane debut". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). p. A8.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Snopes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    24 April 1967 – Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov dies in Soyuz 1 when its parachute fails to open. He is the first human to die during a space mission.

    Vladimir Mikhaylovich Komarov

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    25 April 1916 – Anzac Day is commemorated for the first time on the first anniversary of the landing at Anzac Cove.

    Anzac Day

    The remembrance poppy is an artificial flower that has been used since 1921 to commemorate war dead.
    Flags on the cenotaph in Wellington for the 2007 Dawn March. From left to right, the flags of New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Australia.

    Anzac Day (/ˈænzæk/; Māori: Rā Whakamahara ki ngā Hōia o Ahitereiria me Aotearoa[2] or Rā o ngā Hōia)[1] is a national day of remembrance in Australia and New Zealand that broadly commemorates all Australians and New Zealanders "who served and died in all wars, conflicts, and peacekeeping operations" and "the contribution and suffering of all those who have served".[3][4] Observed on 25 April each year, Anzac Day was originally devised to honour the members of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) who served in the Gallipoli campaign, their first engagement in the First World War (1914–1918).

    1. ^ a b "Rā o Ngā Hōia". Te Aka Māori Dictionary. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
    2. ^ "Rā Whakamahara ki ngā Hōia o Ahitereiria me Aotearoa – te Aka Māori Dictionary".
    3. ^ "ANZAC Day". Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
    4. ^ "Anzac Day Today". Anzac.govt.nz. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
     
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    26 April 1986 – A nuclear reactor accident occurs at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union (now Ukraine), creating the world's worst nuclear disaster.

    Chernobyl plant

     
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    28 April 1996 – Whitewater controversy: President Bill Clinton gives a 4½ hour videotaped testimony for the defense.

    Whitewater controversy

    The Whitewater controversy, Whitewater scandal, Whitewatergate, or simply Whitewater, was an American political controversy during the 1990s. It began with an investigation into the real estate investments of Bill and Hillary Clinton and their associates, Jim and Susan McDougal, in the Whitewater Development Corporation. This failed business venture was incorporated in 1979 with the purpose of developing vacation properties on land along the White River near Flippin, Arkansas.

    A March 1992 New York Times article published during the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign reported that the Clintons, then governor and first lady of Arkansas, had invested and lost money in the Whitewater Development Corporation.[1] The article stimulated the interest of L. Jean Lewis, a Resolution Trust Corporation investigator who was looking into the failure of Madison Guaranty Savings and Loan, also owned by Jim and Susan McDougal.

    Lewis looked for connections between the savings and loan company and the Clintons, and on September 2, 1992, she submitted a criminal referral to the FBI naming Bill and Hillary Clinton as witnesses in the Madison Guaranty case. Little Rock U.S. Attorney Charles A. Banks and the FBI determined that the referral lacked merit, but Lewis continued to pursue the case. From 1992 to 1994, Lewis issued several additional referrals against the Clintons and repeatedly called the U.S. Attorney's Office in Little Rock and the Justice Department regarding the case.[2] Her referrals eventually became public knowledge, and she testified before the Senate Whitewater Committee in 1995.

    David Hale, the source of criminal allegations against the Clintons, claimed in November 1993 that Bill Clinton had pressured him into providing an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal.[3] The allegations were regarded as questionable because Hale had not mentioned Clinton in reference to this loan during the original FBI investigation of Madison Guaranty in 1989; only after coming under indictment himself in 1993, did Hale make allegations against the Clintons.[4] A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project. Jim Guy Tucker, Bill Clinton's successor as governor, was convicted of fraud and sentenced to four years of probation for his role in the matter.[5] Susan McDougal served 18 months in prison for contempt of court for refusing to answer questions relating to Whitewater.

    Neither Bill Clinton nor Hillary Clinton were ever prosecuted, after three separate inquiries found insufficient evidence linking them with the criminal conduct of others related to the land deal. The matter was handled by the Whitewater Independent Counsel, Republican Kenneth Starr. The last of these inquiries came from the final Independent Counsel, Robert Ray (who replaced Starr) in 2000.[6] Susan McDougal was granted a pardon by President Clinton before he left office.[7]

    1. ^ Jeff Gerth, "Clintons Joined S.& L. Operator In an Ozark Real-Estate Venture", The New York Times, March 8, 1992. Accessed April 30, 2007.
    2. ^ Williams, Robert (1998). Political Scandals in the USA. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 65. ISBN 1-57958-039-4.
    3. ^ Jonathan Broder and Murray Waas, "The road to Hale", Salon.com, March 17, 1998. Accessed November 28, 2012.
    4. ^ Murray Waas, "The story Starr did not want to hear", Salon.com, August 17, 1998. Accessed August 25, 2007.
    5. ^ Haddigan, M. (1996). "Tucker Sentenced to 4 Years Probation", Washington Post. 1996.
    6. ^ "Ray: Insufficient evidence to prosecute Clintons in Whitewater probe", CNN, September 20, 2000. Accessed April 30, 2007.
    7. ^ "Clington Pardons McDougal, Hearst, Others". ABC News. Retrieved July 23, 2020.
     

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