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Automated PubMed searches bring up some interesting papers...
A cross sectional study of prevalence, risk factors, population attributable fractions and pathology for foot and limb lesions in preweaning piglets on commercial farms in England
Amy L. KilBride, Claire E. Gillman, Pete Ossent and Laura E. Green
Background
In a cross sectional study of 88 indoor and outdoor English pig farms, the prevalence of foot and limb lesions in 2843 preweaning piglets aged 1-4 weeks from 304 litters was recorded. The environmental risks for the prevalence of lesions and population attributable fractions were calculated. The risks for lesions in piglets were compared with those for limb and body lesions in their mothers. A small number of piglets with each type of lesion were examined post mortem to elucidate the pathology of the clinical lesions observed.
Results
The prevalence of sole bruising, sole erosion, skin abrasion and swollen joints or claws in 2843 piglets was 49.4% (1404), 15.5% (441), 43.6% (1240) and 4.7% (143) respectively. The prevalence of all foot and limb lesions was higher in indoor housed piglets than in outdoor housed piglets. The prevalence of sole bruising (OR 0.3) and skin abrasion (OR 0.6) decreased with each week of age from 1-4 weeks, but there was no significant association between piglet age and the prevalence of sole erosion or swollen joints and claws. There was an increased prevalence of sole bruising (OR 3.0) and swollen joints or claws (OR 3.0) and a decreased prevalence of skin abrasion (OR 0.3, piglets < 1-week old), in piglets housed on slatted floors, compared with those on solid concrete floors with bedding. There was an increased risk of sole erosion associated with piglets housed on partly slatted floors with no bedding (OR 2.4) and partly slatted floors with small amounts of bedding (OR 2.9) compared with piglets housed on solid concrete floors with bedding in all areas of the pen. Post mortem examination of feet with lesions indicated that internal pathological changes were frequently more severe than the degree of external damage suggested.
Conclusions
Piglets housed outdoors had a very low prevalence of foot and limb injuries. Indoors, no one floor type was ideal to minimise all piglet foot and limb injuries and the flooring requirements of sows differed from those of piglets.
My first thought was that this was going to be one of the ever informative and entertaining JIR type articles. On closer examination however it does make a potentially interesting point....
As a follow up, we should ask them to do a study comparing outcomes with shod piggies indoors, unshod piggies indoors and unshod piggies outdoors.
Evaluation of ground reaction forces produced by chickens walking on a force plate.
Corr SA, McCorquodale CC, McGovern RE, Gentle MJ, Bennett D.
Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Herts AL9 7TA. Am J Vet Res. 2003 Jan;64(1):76-82
Quote:
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of a force plate as a method for objective gait analysis in adult poultry, to characterize ground reaction forces (GRFs) produced in adult chickens during normal walking, and to assess the variability of GRFs. ANIMALS: 18 clinically normal 5-month-old Brown Leghorn hens. PROCEDURE: Vertical, craniocaudal, and mediolateral GRFs were measured as hens walked across a standard force plate embedded in the middle of a runway. RESULTS: All GRFs were significantly affected by speed, and variability was high. With increasing speed, overall stance time decreased, but the percentage of stance time spent in braking or propulsion remained approximately equal. There was an overall increase in maximum propulsion force, which was produced at a greater rate over a shorter time; thus, propulsion integral decreased. Maximum braking forces and braking integrals were variable, but the rate at which the forces were generated increased. Mediolateral forces were 2 to 3 times greater in hens than values that have been reported for other species. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A standard force plate can be used to objectively measure GRFs in walking adult hens; however, the large variation in the data suggests that the technique in its current form would be of limited clinical use. Overall, vertical and craniocaudal forces had similar characteristics to those of other species, whereas mediolateral forces were found to be much greater in chickens than for other species.
__________________ Craig Payne
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Evaluation of ground reaction forces produced by chickens walking on a force plate.
Corr SA, McCorquodale CC, McGovern RE, Gentle MJ, Bennett D.
Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Herts AL9 7TA. Am J Vet Res. 2003 Jan;64(1):76-82
Without a doubt one of the best threads ever. Very reminiscent of Mark Russell's finest, a particularly hilarious post from an always entertaining author!
Quote:
Cameron Kippen: Because its feathers are just the best for tickles!
Dave Holland: Because chickens are well adapted for hard, flat surfaces.
Ed Glaser: Because hey! Sole Supports work for chickens to (or should that be too?)
Professor Brian Rothbart: Because Proprioceptive Insoles have been proven to ease egg laying in Italian chicks - see video evidence at: www.rothbartsfoot.com/chicken.egg
Simon Spooner: Coz Uncle Kevin said it should. And if you fu@k!n£ argue I'll kick your sh!tty head in.
Kevin Kirby: Because research has proved (verified in peer reviwed journals) that once across the road, the chicken the chicken will find itself in the Zone of Optimal Stress (unless it's been run over by a car in the process). References:
1. Baitch SP, Blake RL, Fineagan PL, Senatore J: Biomechanical analysis of chicken legs with 25 degree inverted orthotic devices. JAPMA, 81:647-652, 1991.
2. Bates BT, Osternig LR, Mason B, James LS: Foot orthotic devices to modify selected aspects of lower extremity chicken mechanics. Am J Sp Med, 7:328-31, 1979.
3. Blake RL, Denton JA: Functional foot orthoses for chicken injuries: A retrospective study. JAPMA, 75:359-362, 1985.
4. Blake RL: Inverted functional peckers. JAPMA, 76:275-276, 1986.
5. Blake RL, Ferguson H: Foot orthoses for the severe flatclaws in chickens. JAPMA, 81:549, 1991.
6. Blake RL, Ferguson H: The inverted pecker technique: Its role in chicken rearing., pp. 465-497, in Valmassy, R.L.(ed.), Clinical Biomechanics of chickens, Mosby-Year Book, St. Louis, 1996.
7. Butler RJ, McClay-Davis IS, Laughton CM, Hughes M. Dual-function peckers: Effect on hens and control of over-anxious cocks. Chicken Intl, 24:410-414, 2003.
8. Chalmers AC, Busby C, Goyert J, Porter B, Schulzer M: Beak strain and avian rheumatoid arthritis-a randomized, single blind, sequential trial . J Chicken Rheum, 27:1643-1647, 2000.
9. Cheung JT, Zhang M: A 3-dimensional finite element model of the chicken foot and ankle for insole design. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 86:353-358, 2005.
10. Dananberg HJ, Guiliano M: Chronic beak pain and its response to custom-made grain feeders. 89:109-117, 1999.
11. D’Ambrosia RD: Custom devices in chicken running injuries. Clin. Hen Sports Med., 4:611-618, 1985.
12. Donnatelli R, Hurlbert C, et al: Biomechanical claw orthotics: A retrospective study. J Ortho Sp Phys Ther, 10:205-212, 1988.
13. Dorland’s Illustrated Veterinary Dictionary, 25th ed., W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1974.
14. Duffin AC, Kidd R, Chan A, Donaghue KC: High plantar pressure and callus in farmyard animals . Incidence and treatment. JAPMA, 93:214-220, 2003.
15. Dugan RC, D’Ambrosia RD: The effect of orthotics on the treatment of selected running injuries in hens. Foot Ankle, 6:313, 1986.
Absolute comedy gold!
Regards
Robert
The Following User Says Thank You to Robertisaacs For This Useful Post:
Two categories of behaviour involving lateralized posture were observed in semi-natural conditions in ostriches (Struthio camelus). Observing preferences for left or right foot, both in the forward foot posture (the foot standing in front at rest) and the starting foot used to initiate locomotion, a population-level right-foot preference was shown for the whole group and for each of the three age ranges considered (chick, young and adult). Ostriches are known to rely upon a lateralized behaviour during hatching (using their right foot to break the egg shell) suggesting the hypothesis that the precocious motor laterality observed at hatching might stand as a precursor of limb preference later in development, as already observed in other avian species.
Evaluation of potential variables contributing to the development and duration of plantar lesions in a population of aquarium-maintained African penguins (Spheniscus demersus).
Erlacher-Reid C, Dunn JL, Camp T, Macha L, Mazzaro L, Tuttle AD. Zoo Biol. 2011 May 9. doi: 10.1002/zoo.20395. [Epub ahead of print]
Quote:
Bumblefoot (pododermatitis), often described as the most significant environmental disease of captive penguins, is commonly due to excessive pressure or trauma on the plantar surface of the avian foot, resulting in inflammation or necrosis and causing severe swelling, abrasions, or cracks in the skin. Although not formally evaluated in penguins, contributing factors for bumblefoot are thought to be similar to those initiating the condition in raptors and poultry. These factors include substrate, body weight, and lack of exercise. The primary purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate variables potentially contributing to the development and duration of plantar lesions in aquarium-maintained African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), including sex, weight, age, season, exhibit activity, and territory substrate. Results indicate that males develop significantly more plantar lesions than females. Penguins weighing between 3.51 and 4.0 kg develop plantar lesions significantly more often than penguins weighing between 2.5 and 3.5 kg, and because male African penguins ordinarily weigh significantly more than females, weight is likely a contributing factor in the development of lesions in males compared with females. Significantly more plantar lesions were observed in penguins standing for greater than 50% of their time on exhibit than swimming. Penguins occupying smooth concrete territories developed more plantar lesions compared with penguins occupying grate territories. Recommendations for minimizing bumblefoot in African penguins include training penguins for monthly foot examinations for early detection of plantar lesions predisposing for the disease, encouraging swimming activity, and replacing smooth surfaces on exhibit with surfaces providing variable degrees of pressure and texture on the feet
Vertical ground reaction forces diminish in mice after botulinum toxin injection.
Manske SL, Boyd SK, Zernicke RF J Biomech. 2011 Feb 24;44(4):637-43
Quote:
We examined changes in weight-bearing ability in mice after injection with botulinum toxin type A (BTX) to determine whether BTX can be used to isolate the effects of muscle on bone. As ambulation patterns were previously shown to improve within two weeks post-injection, we hypothesized that BTX injection to the posterior hindlimb would not significantly affect the mouse's ability to bear weight in the affected limb one week post-injection. Female BALB/c mice (N=13, 16-17 week old) were injected with either 20 μL of BTX (1U/100 g) or saline (SAL) in the left posterior hindlimb. Vertical ground reaction forces (GRF), hindlimb muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA), and tibial bone micro-architecture were assessed for 42 d following injection. Peak and average vertical GRF were 11±1% and 23±3% lower, respectively, in the BTX-injected hindlimb within 4d post-injection and remained lower than the SAL-injected hindlimb 14-21 d post-injection (15±4% and 10±2%, respectively). Time between forelimb and hindlimb peaks was 30-40% greater in the BTX-injected hindlimb than SAL-injected hindlimb 4-14 d post-injection. Peak vertical GRF recovered earlier following BTX injection than MCSA or bone volume fraction. These results indicate that weight-bearing ability recovered despite persistent muscle atrophy, and that weight-bearing alone was insufficient to maintain bone in the absence of muscle activity. We suggest that the absence of high-frequency signals typically associated with fast-twitch muscle activity may be contributing to the ongoing degradation of bone after BTX injection.
The ostrich is highly specialized in terrestrial locomotion and is the only extant bird that is both didactyl and exhibits a permanently elevated metatarsophalangeal joint. This extreme degree of digitigrady provides an excellent opportunity for the study of phalangeal adaptation towards fast, sustained bipedal locomotion. Data were gathered in a semi-natural setting with hand-raised, cooperative specimens. Dynamic pressure distribution, centre of pressure (CoP) trajectory and the positional inter-relationship of the toes during stance phase were investigated using pedobarography. Walking and running trials shared a J-shaped CoP trajectory with greater localization of CoP origin as speed increased. Slight variations of 4th toe position in walking affect CoP origin and modulation of 4th toe pressure on the substrate allows correction of balance, primarily at the beginning of stance phase at lower speeds. Load distribution patterns differed significantly between slow and fast trials. In walking, the 3rd and particularly the 4th toe exhibited notable variation in load distribution with minor claw participation only at push-off. Running trials yielded a distinctly triangular load distribution pattern defined by the 4th toe tip, the proximal part of the 3rd toe and the claw tip, with the sharp point of the claw providing an essential traction element at push-off. Consistency of CoP trajectory and load distribution at higher speeds arises from dynamic stability effects and may also reflect stringent limitations to degrees of freedom in hindlimb joint articulation that contribute to locomotor efficiency. This novel research could aid in the reconstruction of theropod locomotor modes and offers a systemic approach for future avian pedobarographic investigations.
From flat foot to fat foot: structure, ontogeny, function, and evolution of elephant "sixth toes".
Hutchinson JR, Delmer C, Miller CE, Hildebrandt T, Pitsillides AA, Boyde A. Science. 2011 Dec 23;334(6063):1699-703.
Quote:
Several groups of tetrapods have expanded sesamoid (small, tendon-anchoring) bones into digit-like structures ("predigits"), such as pandas' "thumbs." Elephants similarly have expanded structures in the fat pads of their fore- and hindfeet, but for three centuries these have been overlooked as mere cartilaginous curiosities. We show that these are indeed massive sesamoids that employ a patchy mode of ossification of a massive cartilaginous precursor and that the predigits act functionally like digits. Further, we reveal clear osteological correlates of predigit joint articulation with the carpals/tarsals that are visible in fossils. Our survey shows that basal proboscideans were relatively "flat-footed" (plantigrade), whereas early elephantiforms evolved the more derived "tip-toed" (subunguligrade) morphology, including the predigits and fat pad, of extant elephants. Thus, elephants co-opted sesamoid bones into a role as false digits and used them for support as they changed their foot posture.
I refer you to the writings of Steve Gould - one of the greatest biologists of the 20th century - in particular in this respect, "The Panda's Thumb" Rob
Statistical parametric mapping of the regional distribution and ontogenetic scaling of foot pressures during walking in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
Panagiotopoulou O, Pataky TC, Hill Z, Hutchinson JR. J Exp Biol. 2012 May 1;215(Pt 9):1584-93.
Quote:
Foot pressure distributions during locomotion have causal links with the anatomical and structural configurations of the foot tissues and the mechanics of locomotion. Elephant feet have five toes bound in a flexible pad of fibrous tissue (digital cushion). Does this specialized foot design control peak foot pressures in such giant animals? And how does body size, such as during ontogenetic growth, influence foot pressures? We addressed these questions by studying foot pressure distributions in elephant feet and their correlation with body mass and centre of pressure trajectories, using statistical parametric mapping (SPM), a neuro-imaging technology. Our results show a positive correlation between body mass and peak pressures, with the highest pressures dominated by the distal ends of the lateral toes (digits 3, 4 and 5). We also demonstrate that pressure reduction in the elephant digital cushion is a complex interaction of its viscoelastic tissue structure and its centre of pressure trajectories, because there is a tendency to avoid rear 'heel' contact as an elephant grows. Using SPM, we present a complete map of pressure distributions in elephant feet during ontogeny by performing statistical analysis at the pixel level across the entire plantar/palmar surface. We hope that our study will build confidence in the potential clinical and scaling applications of mammalian foot pressures, given our findings in support of a link between regional peak pressures and pathogenesis in elephant feet.
Assessing the welfare impact of foot disorders in dairy cattle by a modeling approach.
Bruijnis MR, Beerda B, Hogeveen H, Stassen EN. Animal. 2012 Jun;6(6):962-70.
Quote:
Foot disorders are the main cause of dairy cow lameness and are considered to have a major impact on the welfare of dairy cattle. This study adopts a modeling approach, using a dynamic stochastic model, to provide more insight into the welfare impact of different types of foot disorders, both clinical and subclinical. The impact of specific foot disorders on welfare was assessed by simulating the incidence and duration of foot disorders and the pain associated with them. Pain assessment was based on locomotion scores, with underlying knowledge obtained from scientific literature and experts. The results demonstrated the seriousness of the welfare impact of foot disorders. The negative welfare impact was measured on a scale from 0 to 60, where the maximum outcome represents a cow having very severe pain during the whole year. On average, each cow achieves a welfare impact score of 12, which is 20% of the maximum welfare impact score. This welfare score equals having severe pain for a period of 3 months, indicating a serious impact on welfare. On average, digital dermatitis impacts most on welfare, which is caused by a high incidence of the painful clinical stage, followed by sole hemorrhages (SoH) and interdigital dermatitis and heel horn erosion (IDHE). The combination of a high incidence and long duration of SoH and IDHE causes this relatively high welfare impact of foot disorders that occur mostly subclinically. On average, over 1 year, 46% of the welfare impact due to foot disorders is caused by clinical foot disorders. The fact that subclinical foot disorders contribute more or less equally to the effects on welfare as clinical ones, indicates that farmers may readily underestimate the welfare impact by a factor two. Modeling welfare impact at cow level, individual cases of foot disorders, stresses the importance of pain intensity, indicating the importance of clinical foot disorders. This study demonstrated the serious welfare impact of foot disorders in dairy cattle and pointed out the considerable impact of subclinical foot disorders. Furthermore, the approach of welfare assessment, for example herd v. cow level, influenced the ranking of foot disorders for their impact on animal welfare. Potentially, this leads to different prioritization of specific solution strategies for dairy farmers, for example, focusing on cow comfort, hygiene or preventive medical treatments, foot trimming and/or health monitoring. The findings in this study support in raising awareness about this welfare issue.
Traditional and commercial turkeys show similar susceptibility to foot pad dermatitis and behavioural evidence of pain.
Hocking PM, Wu K. Br Poult Sci. 2013 May 7.
Quote:
An experiment was conducted to compare the development and clinical significance of foot pad dermatitis (FPD) in 4 lines of turkey poults kept on wet or dry litter for 6 d. 2. Turkeys kept on wet litter were less active and expressed fewer unique sequences of behaviour than poults kept on dry litter, suggesting that high FPD scores are associated with pain during movement. 3. Heavier lines of turkeys had higher mean foot scores that developed earlier, than those in a traditional line, but the effect was relatively small and not statistically significant after 6 d, whereas there were large differences between individuals within line. 4. Body weight gains were greater, and feed intake was lower in the commercial lines kept on dry litter compared with wet litter. There were no differences in water intake between poults kept on wet or dry litter.
Foot problems in English piglets
Linear Mode
