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15 August 1483 – Pope Sixtus IV consecrates the Sistine Chapel.

Sistine Chapel

Chapel in the Apostolic Palace, Vatican City

Rome

1km
0.6miles

Sistine Chapel

  

The Sistine Chapel (/ˌsɪsˈtiːn ˈtʃæpəl/; Latin: Sacellum Sixtinum; Italian: Cappella Sistina [kapˈpɛlla siˈstiːna]) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the pope's official residence in Vatican City. Originally known as the Cappella Magna ('Great Chapel'), the chapel takes its name from Pope Sixtus IV, who had it built between 1473 and 1481. Since that time, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today, it is the site of the papal conclave, the process by which a new pope is selected. The fame of the Sistine Chapel lies mainly in the frescoes that decorate the interior, most particularly the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment, both by Michelangelo.

During the reign of Sixtus IV, a team of Renaissance painters that included Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, created a series of frescos depicting the Life of Moses and the Life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe-l'œil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on 15 August 1483 Sixtus IV celebrated the first mass in the Sistine Chapel for the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.^[3][4]

Between 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project that changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization.^[5][6] In a different political climate, after the Sack of Rome, he returned and, between 1535 and 1541, painted The Last Judgment for Popes Clement VII and Paul III.^[7] The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago. According to recent studies, the Sistine Chapel is influenced by the thought of Joachim of Fiore. The monk and philosopher thus influenced the vision and the iconographic project for the representation of the Last Judgment. Michelangelo's frescoes with an eschatological theme are therefore an artistic development of the various Joachim writings of the 12th century about the apocalypse and the last days.^[8]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference EHT2006_313 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Vatican City, Whc.unesco.org, archived from the original on 25 December 2017, retrieved 9 August 2011
3. ^ Pietrangeli 1986, p. 28
4. ^ Monfasani, John (1983), "A Description of the Sistine Chapel under Pope Sixtus IV", Artibus et Historiae, 4 (7), IRSA s.c.: 9–18, doi:10.2307/1483178, ISSN 0391-9064, JSTOR 1483178, archived from the original on 1 August 2015, retrieved 7 March 2009.
5. ^ Gardner, Helen (1970) Art through the Ages, p. 469, Harcourt, Brace and World. ISBN 978-0-15-508315-8
6. ^ Robert Coughlan, The World of Michelangelo, Time-Life International, (1966) p. 116
7. ^ Robert Coughlan, p. 127
8. ^ "Gioacchino da Fiore ispirò Michelangelo". November 2012. Archived from the original on 4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.

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16 August 1960 – Cyprus gains its independence from the United Kingdom.

Cyprus

Mediterranean island country in the Middle East

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Cyprus (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Cypress.

Cyprus^[f] (/ˈsaɪprəs/ ^ⓘ), officially the Republic of Cyprus,^[g] is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, north of the Sinai Peninsula, south of the Anatolian Peninsula, and west of the Levant. It is geographically a part of West Asia, but its cultural ties and geopolitics are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the third-largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean.^[12][13] It is east of Greece, north of Egypt, south of Turkey, and west of Lebanon and Syria. Its capital and largest city is Nicosia. The northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.

The earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains include the well-preserved ruins from the Hellenistic period such as Salamis and Kourion, and Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.^[14] Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC. As a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean, it was subsequently occupied by several major powers, including the empires of the Assyrians, Egyptians and Persians, from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great. Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt, the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire, Arab caliphates for a short period, the French Lusignan dynasty and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 (de jure until 1914).^[15]

Cyprus was placed under the United Kingdom's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914. The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots, who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots, who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis, union with Greece, which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.^[16][17] The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim, the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.^[18]

Following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960.^[19] The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves^{[20]: 56–59 [21]} and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, a coup d'état was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists^[22][23] and elements of the Greek military junta^{[citation needed]} in an attempt at enosis. This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July,^[24] which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and the displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots^[25][26] and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots.^[27] A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983; the move was widely condemned by the international community, with Turkey alone recognising the new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute.

Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean.^[28][29][30] With an advanced,^[31] high-income economy and a very high Human Development Index,^[32][33] Cyprus ranked 28th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.^[34] The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.^[35] On 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone.^[36]

1. ^ "National Anthem". www.presidency.gov.cy. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
2. ^ "Cyprus". Global Religious Future. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 17 July 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference CIA2019 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Cyprus". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 29 April 2022. (Archived 2022 edition.)
5. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
6. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
7. ^ "Census of Population and Housing 2021, Preliminary Results by District, Municipality/Community". Nicosia: Statistical Service of Cyprus. 4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
8. ^ "World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, DB02: Stock Indicators". United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. New York. 2013. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023". Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. 5 October 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
10. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". Luxembourg: Eurostat. 28 June 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
11. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
12. ^ "Biggest Islands In The Mediterranean Sea By Area". WorldAtlas. Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
13. ^ "The Most Populated Islands In The Mediterranean Sea". WorldAtlas. Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
14. ^ "Stone Age wells found in Cyprus". BBC News. 25 June 2009. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
15. ^ "Treaty of Lausanne". Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
16. ^ Faustmann, Hubert; Ker-Lindsay, James (2008). The Government and Politics of Cyprus. Peter Lang. p. 48. ISBN 978-3-03911-096-4.
17. ^ Mirbagheri, Farid (2009). Historical Dictionary of Cyprus. Scarecrow Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780810862982.
18. ^ Trimikliniotis, Nicos (2012). Beyond a Divided Cyprus: A State and Society in Transformation. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-137-10080-1.
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference independence was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hoffmeister 2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Intercommunal Violence was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ Mallinson, William (2005). Cyprus: A Modern History. I. B. Tauris. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-85043-580-8.
23. ^ "website". BBC News. 4 October 2002. Archived from the original on 26 July 2004. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
24. ^ Eyal Benvenisti (23 February 2012). The International Law of Occupation. Oxford University Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-19-958889-3. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
25. ^ Barbara Rose Johnston, Susan Slyomovics. Waging War, Making Peace: Reparations and Human Rights (2009), American Anthropological Association Reparations Task Force, p. 211 Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
26. ^ Morelli, Vincent. Cyprus: Reunification Proving Elusive (2011), DIANE Publishing, p. 10 Archived 13 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
27. ^ Borowiec, Andrew. Cyprus: A Troubled Island (2000), Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 125 Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
28. ^ Lesley Pender; Richard Sharpley (2005). The Management of Tourism. SAGE. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-7619-4022-7. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
29. ^ Richard Sharpley (16 May 2012). Tourism Development and the Environment: Beyond Sustainability?. Routledge. p. 296. ISBN 978-1-136-57330-9. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
30. ^ Sharpley, Richard; Telfer, David John (2002). Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues. Channel View Publications. p. 334. ISBN 978-1-873150-34-4. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
31. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database May 2001". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
32. ^ "Country and Lending Groups". World Bank. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
33. ^ "Human Development Index (HDI)–2011 Rankings". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
34. ^ WIPO. "Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition". www.wipo.int. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
35. ^ "The Non-Aligned Movement: Background Information". Non-Aligned Movement. 21 September 2001. Archived from the original on 9 February 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
36. ^ "Human Development Index (HDI)–2011 Rankings". Stanford University. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2019.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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17 August 1947 – The Radcliffe Line, the border between Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan is revealed.

Radcliffe Line

Boundary of the Partition of India

The Radcliffe Line was the boundary demarcated by the two boundary commissions for the provinces of Punjab and Bengal during the Partition of India. It is named after Cyril Radcliffe, who, as the joint chairman of the two boundary commissions, had the ultimate responsibility to equitably divide 175,000 square miles (450,000 km²) of territory with 88 million people.^[1]

The term "Radcliffe Line" is also sometimes used for the entire boundary between India and Pakistan. However, outside of Punjab and Bengal, the boundary is made of existing provincial boundaries and had nothing to do with the Radcliffe commissions.

The demarcation line was published on 17 August 1947, two days after the independence of Pakistan and India. Today, the Punjab part of the line is part of the India–Pakistan border while the Bengal part of the line serves as the Bangladesh–India border.

1. ^ Read & Fisher, The Proudest Day 1998, p. 482

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18 August 1966 – Vietnam War: the Battle of Long Tan ensues after a patrol from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment clashes with a Viet Cong force in Phước Tuy Province.\

Battle of Long Tan

1966 battle of the Vietnam War

The Battle of Long Tan (18 August 1966) took place in a rubber plantation near Long Tân, in Phước Tuy Province, South Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. The action was fought between Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) units and elements of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF).

Australian signals intelligence (SIGINT) had tracked the VC 275th Regiment and D445 Battalion moving to a position just north of Long Tan. By 16 August, it was positioned near Long Tan outside the range of the 1 ATF artillery at Nui Dat. Using mortars and recoilless rifles (RCLs), on the night of 16/17 August, the VC attacked Nui Dat from a position 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east, until counter-battery fire made it stop. The next morning D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR), departed Nui Dat to locate the firing positions and determine the direction of the VC withdrawal. D Company found weapon pits and firing positions for mortars and RCLs, and around midday on 18 August made contact with VC elements.

Facing a larger force, D Company called in artillery support. Heavy fighting ensued as the VC attempted to encircle and destroy the Australians, who were resupplied several hours later by two UH-1B Iroquois from No. 9 Squadron RAAF. With the help of strong artillery fire, D Company held off a regimental assault before a relief force of M113 armoured personnel carriers and infantry from Nui Dat reinforced them that night. Australian forces then pulled back to evacuate their casualties and formed a defensive position; when they swept through the area next day, the VC had withdrawn and the operation ended on 21 August.

Although 1 ATF initially viewed Long Tan as a defeat, the action was later re-assessed as a strategic victory since it prevented the VC moving against Nui Dat. The VC also considered it a victory, due to the political success of an effective ambush and securing of the area around the village. Whether the battle impaired the capabilities of the VC is disputed.

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19 August 1981 – Gulf of Sidra Incident: United States fighters intercept and shoot down two Libyan Sukhoi Su-22 fighter jets over the Gulf of Sidra.

Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)

1981 air battle between Libya and the US in the Mediterranean

This article is about the 1981 incident involving Su-22s. For the 1989 incident involving MiG-23s, see Gulf of Sidra incident (1989). For other military actions in the area, see Battle of Sirte.

In the first Gulf of Sidra incident, 19 August 1981, two Libyan Su-22 Fitters fired upon two U.S. F-14 Tomcats and were subsequently shot down off the Libyan coast. Libya had claimed that the entire Gulf was their territory, at 32° 30′ N, with an exclusive 62-nautical-mile (115 km; 71 mi) fishing zone, which Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi asserted as "The Line of Death" in 1973.^[1] Two further incidents occurred in the area in 1986 and in 1989.

1. ^ "Libya Maritime claims". Indexmundi.com. Retrieved 1 March 2013.

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20 August 917 – Battle of Acheloos: Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria decisively defeats a Byzantine army.

Battle of Achelous (917)

Part of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars

42°38′35″N 27°38′12″E / 42.64306°N 27.63667°E / 42.64306; 27.63667

The Battle of Achelous or Acheloos (Bulgarian: Битката при Ахелой, Greek: Μάχη του Αχελώου),^[4] also known as the Battle of Anchialus,^[5] took place on 20 August 917, on the Achelous river near the Bulgarian Black Sea coast, close to the fortress Tuthom (modern Pomorie) between Bulgarian and Byzantine forces. The Bulgarians obtained a decisive victory which not only secured the previous successes of Simeon I, but made him de facto ruler of the whole Balkan Peninsula, excluding the well-protected Byzantine capital Constantinople and the Peloponnese.

The battle, which was one of the biggest and bloodiest battles of the European Middle Ages, was one of the worst disasters ever to befall a Byzantine army, and conversely one of the greatest military successes of Bulgaria.^[6] Among the most significant consequences was the official recognition of the imperial title of the Bulgarian monarchs, and the consequent affirmation of Bulgarian equality vis-à-vis Byzantium.

1. ^ "Сайт на списание Военна история, 27.03.2017. Александър Стоянов, Ахелой – митове и легенди". Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2019.
2. ^ Haldon, p. 92
3. ^ Hupchick, p. 80
4. ^ Haldon (1999), p. 212
5. ^ Stephenson (2004), p. 23
6. ^ Haldon (2008), p. 92

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21 August 1991 – Coup attempt against Mikhail Gorbachev collapses.

1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt

Redirect to:

• 1991 Soviet coup attempt

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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22 August 1961 – Ida Siekmann died attempting to cross the Berlin Wall.

Ida Siekmann

First known person to die at the Berlin Wall

Ida Siekmann (23 August 1902 – 22 August 1961) was a German nurse who became the first known person to die at the Berlin Wall, only nine days after the beginning of its construction.

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23 August 1942 – World War II: Beginning of the Battle of Stalingrad.

Battle of Stalingrad

Major battle of World War II

For the 1949 Soviet film, see The Battle of Stalingrad (film). For other uses, see Stalingrad (disambiguation).

The Battle of Stalingrad^{[Note 8]} (17 July 1942 – 2 February 1943)^{[27][28][29][30]} occurred on the Eastern Front of World War II, beginning when Nazi Germany and the Axis powers became locked in a protracted struggle with the Soviet Union for control over the city of Stalingrad in what is now southern Russia. It was characterized by fierce close-quarters combat and direct assaults on civilians in aerial raids; the battle epitomized urban warfare^{[31][32][33][34]} and is recorded as the single largest and costliest urban battle in military history.^[35][36][37] Likewise, it was the bloodiest and fiercest battle of the entirety of World War II—and arguably in all of human history—as both sides suffered tremendous casualties amidst ferocious fighting in and around the city.^{[38][39][40][41][42]} Today, the Battle of Stalingrad is commonly regarded as the turning point in the European theatre of World War II,^[43] as Germany's Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was forced to withdraw a considerable amount of military forces from other regions to replace losses on the Eastern Front. By the time the hostilities ended, the German 6th Army and 4th Panzer Army had been destroyed and Army Group B was routed. The Soviets' victory at Stalingrad shifted the Eastern Front's balance of power in their favour, while also boosting the morale of the Red Army.

Both sides placed great strategic importance on Stalingrad, as it was the largest industrial centre of the Soviet Union and an important transport hub on the Volga River:^[44] controlling Stalingrad meant gaining access to the oil fields of the Caucasus and having supreme authority over the Volga River.^[45] The city also held significant symbolic importance because it bore the name of Joseph Stalin, the incumbent General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. As the conflict progressed, Germany's fuel supplies dwindled and thus drove it to focus on moving deeper into Soviet territory and taking the country's oil fields at any cost. The German military first clashed with the Red Army's Stalingrad Front on the distant approaches to Stalingrad on 17 July. On 23 August, the 6th Army and elements of the 4th Panzer Army launched their offensive with support from intensive bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, which reduced much of the city to rubble. The battle soon degenerated into house-to-house fighting, which escalated drastically as both sides continued pouring reinforcements into the city. By mid-November, the Germans, at great cost, had pushed the Soviet defenders back into narrow zones along the Volga's west bank. However, winter set in within a few months and conditions became particularly brutal, with temperatures often dropping tens of degrees below sub-zero. In addition to fierce urban combat, brutal trench warfare was prevalent at Stalingrad as well.

On 19 November, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus, a two-pronged attack targeting the Romanian armies protecting the 6th Army's flanks.^[46] The Axis flanks were overrun and the 6th Army was encircled. Adolf Hitler was determined to hold the city for Germany at all costs and forbade the 6th Army from trying a breakout; instead, attempts were made to supply it by air and to break the encirclement from the outside. Though the Soviets were successful in preventing the Germans from making enough airdrops to the trapped Axis armies at Stalingrad, heavy fighting continued for another two months. On 2 February 1943, the 6th Army, having exhausted their ammunition and food, finally capitulated after several months of battle, making it the first of Hitler's field armies to have surrendered.^[47]

In modern-day Russia, the legacy of the Red Army's victory at Stalingrad is commemorated among the Days of Military Honour. It is also well known in many other countries that belonged to the Allied powers, and has thus become ingrained in popular culture. Likewise, in a number of the post-Soviet states, the Battle of Stalingrad is recognized as an important aspect of what is known as the Great Patriotic War.

Cite error: There are <ref group=Note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=Note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Bergström 2007.
2. ^ Glantz & House 1995, p. 346.
3. ^ ^{a b} История Второй Мировой войны 1939–1945. В 12 томах. [History of the Second World War 1939–1945. In 12 volumes.] (in Russian). Vol. 6. Коренной перелом в войне. Воениздат. 1976. p. 35.
4. ^ Hayward 1998, p. 225; Bergström 2006, p. 87.
5. ^ Bergström 2007, p. 72.
6. ^ ^{a b} Glantz & House 1995, p. 134
7. ^ Hayward 1998, p. 224.
8. ^ Wilson, Peter H. (2023). Iron and Blood: A Military History of the German-Speaking Peoples since 1500 (1st ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 580. ISBN 978-0-674-98762-3.
9. ^ Великая Отечественная война 1941–1945 годов. В 12 т. [The Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945, in 12 Volumes] (in Russian). Vol. 3. Битвы и сражения, изменившие ход войны. Кучково поле. 2012. p. 421. ISBN 978-5-9950-0269-7.
10. ^ Walter Scott Dunn, Kursk: Hitler's Gamble, 1943, p. 1
11. ^ ^{a b} Walsh 2000, p. 165.
12. ^ Jochen Hellbeck, Stalingrad: The City That Defeated the Third Reich, p. 12
13. ^ DiMarco 2012, p. 39.
14. ^ ^{a b} Frieser et al. 2017, p. 14.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Craig 1973, p. xii.
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17. ^ Bell 2011, pp. 104–105.
18. ^ Childers, Thomas (2017). The Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (1st ed.). Simon & Schuster. p. 518. ISBN 978-1-4516-5113-3.
19. ^ ^{a b} Переслегин, Сергей Борисович; Панин, А. (2005). Сталинград: цена победы [Stalingrad: The Price of Victory] (in Russian). Terra Fantastica. p. 118. ISBN 5-7921-0673-8.
20. ^ ^{a b} Соколов, Борис (2014). Чудо Сталинграда [The Miracle of Stalingrad] (in Russian). Алгоритм. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-5-4438-0489-7.
21. ^ Rees, Laurence (30 March 2011). "Hitler's Invasion of Russia in World War Two". BBC. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
22. ^ Hill, Alexander (2016). The Red Army and the Second World War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107020795.
23. ^ Popov, P.P.; Kozlov, A.V.; Usik, B.G. (2008). Turning Point: Recollections of Russian Participants and Witnesses of the Stalingrad Battle. Leaping Horseman Books. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-9751076-6-9.
24. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2020). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won (reprint ed.). Basic Books. pp. 136, 308. ISBN 978-1541674103.
25. ^ Rees, Laurence (1999). The War of the Century: When Hitler Fought Stalin. BBC Books. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-563-38477-9.
26. ^ Hoyt, Edwin P. (1993). 199 Days: The Battle for Stalingrad. Tor Books. p. 276. ISBN 9780312854638.
27. ^ Werth 1964, p. 441: "Broadly speaking, the Battle of Stalingrad may be divided into the following stages: (1) July 17 to August 4, when the main fighting was still inside the Don Bend."
28. ^ Великая Отечественная война 1941–1945 годов. В 12 т. [The Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945, in 12 Volumes] (in Russian). Vol. 3. Битвы и сражения, изменившие ход войны. Кучково поле. 2012. p. 252. ISBN 978-5-9950-0269-7. July 17, 1942 in Russian historiography is considered the beginning of the Stalingrad War.
29. ^ Hardesty, Von; Grinberg, Ilya (2012). "Stalingrad". Red Phoenix Rising: The Soviet Air Force in World War II. University Press of Kansas. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-7006-1828-6. Epic in scope and meaning, this bloody conflict endured for 199 days, beginning in July 1942 and ending in February 1943.
30. ^ Wills, Matthew (17 July 2017). "How the Nazis Created the Myth of Stalingrad". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 23 March 2024. Seventy-five years ago in July of 1942, the battle for Stalingrad began.
31. ^ Anderson, Gregory K. (1 June 2003). Urban Operations: Theory and Cases (Master's thesis). Naval Postgraduate School. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
32. ^ Spencer, John; Geroux, Jayson (28 June 2021). "Urban Warfare Project Case Study #1: Battle of Stalingrad". Modern War Institute. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
33. ^ DiMarco 2012, p. 27.
34. ^ Walsh, Stephen (2020). "The Battle of Stalingrad, September–November 1942". In Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (ed.). A History of Modern Urban Operations. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 55. ISBN 978-3-030-27088-9.
35. ^ Intrec Inc (1974). "Weapons Effects in Cities. Volume 1". Technical Report – via DTIC.
36. ^ Hartle, Anthony E. (1975). Breaching Walls in Urban Warfare (Master's thesis). United States Army Command and General Staff College. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
37. ^ Johnson, Kevin D (1991). "Intelligence Preparation of the Urban Battlefield". Advanced Military Studies – via DTIC.
38. ^ Winchester, Charles D. (2011). Hitler's War on Russia. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 9781849089906.
39. ^ Roberts, Andrew (2012). The Storm of War: A New History of the Second World War. HarperCollins. pp. 320, 324, 345. ISBN 978-0-06-122860-5.
40. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
41. ^ Krinko, Evgeniy F.; Medvedev, Maksim V. (1 February 2018). "Demographic Consequences of the Stalingrad Battle". Vestnik Volgogradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta. Seriâ 4. Istoriâ, Regionovedenie, Meždunarodnye Otnošeniâ (in English and Russian). 23 (1): 91–104. doi:10.15688/jvolsu4.2018.1.9. ISSN 1998-9938.
42. ^ Hanson, Victor Davis (2020). The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won (Reprint ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 3, 136, 308. ISBN 978-1541674103.
43. ^ Johnson, Ian (15 August 2017). "Stalingrad at 75, the Turning Point of World War II in Europe". Origins. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
44. ^ ГЛЕЗЕРОВ, Сергей (17 August 2017). "Битва за символ. Сталинград стал точкой перелома во Второй мировой войне". spbvedomosti.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 27 March 2024.
45. ^ "History Through the Viewfinder". The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. 20 October 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
46. ^ Beevor 1998, p. 239.
47. ^ Shirer 1990, p. 932.

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24 August 1456 – The printing of the Gutenberg Bible is completed.

Gutenberg Bible

Earliest major book printed in Europe

The Gutenberg Bible, also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible or the B42, was the earliest major book printed in Europe using mass-produced metal movable type. It marked the start of the "Gutenberg Revolution" and the age of printed books in the West. The book is valued and revered for its high aesthetic and artistic qualities^[1] and its historical significance.

The Gutenberg Bible is an edition of the Latin Vulgate printed in the 1450s by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, in present-day Germany. Forty-nine copies (or substantial portions of copies) have survived. They are thought to be among the world's most valuable books, although no complete copy has been sold since 1978.^[2][3] In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible displayed in Frankfurt to promote the edition, and that either 158 or 180 copies had been printed.

The 36-line Bible, said to be the second printed Bible, is also sometimes referred to as a Gutenberg Bible, but may be the work of another printer.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Davies was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference MSNBC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Luxist.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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25 August 1944 – World War II: Paris is liberated by the Allies.

Liberation of Paris

Military battle during World War II on 19 August 1944

Not to be confused with the Paris newspaper Libération.

The liberation of Paris (French: libération de Paris) was a military battle that took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the German garrison surrendered the French capital on 25 August 1944. Paris had been occupied by Nazi Germany since the signing of the Armistice of 22 June 1940, after which the Wehrmacht occupied northern and western France.

The liberation began when the French Forces of the Interior—the military structure of the French Resistance—staged an uprising against the German garrison upon the approach of the US Third Army, led by General George S. Patton. On the night of 24 August, elements of General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque's 2nd French Armored Division made their way into Paris and arrived at the Hôtel de Ville shortly before midnight. The next morning, 25 August, the bulk of the 2nd Armored Division and US 4th Infantry Division and other allied units entered the city. Dietrich von Choltitz, commander of the German garrison and the military governor of Paris, surrendered to the French at the Hôtel Le Meurice, the newly established French headquarters. General Charles de Gaulle of the French Army arrived to assume control of the city as head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Libération de Paris [Liberation of Paris]" Archived 19 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine (in French). (PDF format).
2. ^ "The Lost Evidence – Liberation of Paris". History.

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26 August 1883 – The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa begins its final, paroxysmal, stage.

1883 eruption of Krakatoa

Catastrophic volcanic eruption

The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa (Indonesian: Letusan Krakatau 1883) in the Sunda Strait occurred from 20 May until 21 October 1883, peaking in the late morning hours of 27 August when over 70% of the island of Krakatoa and its surrounding archipelago were destroyed as it collapsed into a caldera.

The eruption was one of the deadliest and most destructive volcanic events in recorded history. The explosion was heard 3,110 kilometres (1,930 mi) away in Perth, Western Australia, and Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) away.^[3] The acoustic pressure wave circled the globe more than three times.^[4]: 63 At least 36,417 deaths are attributed to the eruption and the tsunamis it created.

Significant additional effects were felt worldwide in the days and weeks after the volcano's eruption. Additional seismic activity was reported until February 1884, but any reports after October 1883 were dismissed by Rogier Verbeek's subsequent investigation into the eruption.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Krakatau". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
2. ^ Self, Stephen (1992). "Krakatau revisited: The course of events and interpretation of the 1883 eruption". GeoJournal. 28 (2). Springer Science+Business Media. doi:10.1007/BF00177223. S2CID 189890473. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
3. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Krakatoa" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 923.
4. ^ Symons, G.J. (ed) The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society). London, 1888. Internet Archive. 1888.

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27 August 1993 – The Rainbow Bridge, connecting Tokyo's Shibaura and the island of Odaiba, is completed.

Rainbow Bridge (Tokyo)

Bridge in Tokyo, Japan

The Rainbow Bridge (レインボーブリッジ, Reinbō Buridji) is a suspension bridge crossing northern Tokyo Bay between Shibaura Pier and the Odaiba waterfront development in Minato, Tokyo, Japan.

It is named Tōkyō Kō Renrakukyō (東京港連絡橋) as the official name in Japanese.

It was built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries,^[1][2] with construction starting in 1987 and completed in 1993.^[3] The bridge is 798 m (2,618 ft) long with a main span of 580 m (1,903 ft).^[4] Officially called the "Shuto Expressway No. 11 Daiba Route - Port of Tokyo Connector Bridge,"^[5] the name "Rainbow Bridge" was decided by the public.

The towers supporting the bridge are white in color, designed to harmonize with the skyline of central Tokyo seen from Odaiba. There are lamps placed on the wires supporting the bridge, which are illuminated into three different colors, red, white and green every night using solar energy obtained during the day.

The bridge can be accessed by foot from Tamachi Station (JR East) or Shibaura-futō Station (Yurikamome) on the mainland side.

1. ^ ArchiTravel - Kawasaki Heavy Industries Retrieved October 4, 2015
2. ^ Structurae - Rainbow Bridge Retrieved October 4, 2015
3. ^ Rainbow Bridge record broken October 6, 2002 Japan Times Retrieved October 4, 2015
4. ^ "首都高速道路株式会社｜首都高の名所｜レインボーブリッジ". Retrieved 2009-12-26.
5. ^ Japan National Tourist Organization - Rainbow Bridge Retrieved October 4, 2015

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28 August 1845 – The first issue of Scientific American magazine is published.

Scientific American

American monthly science magazine

Academic journal

Scientific American, informally abbreviated SciAm or sometimes SA, is an American popular science magazine. Many scientists, including Albert Einstein and Nikola Tesla, have contributed articles to it, with more than 150 Nobel Prize-winners being featured since its inception.^[2]

In print since 1845, it is the oldest continuously published magazine in the United States. Scientific American is owned by Springer Nature, which is a subsidiary of Holtzbrinck Publishing Group.

1. ^ Scientific American, Inc. (1862)Men of progress : American inventors presented to the subscribers of the Scientific American. Munn & Co. (New York, N.Y.), publisher.
2. ^ "Front Matter". Scientific American, vol. 110, no. 1, 1914. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26012562. Accessed 3 July 2023.

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29 August 2004 – Michael Schumacher wins his 5th consecutive Formula One Drivers' championship (and 7th overall) at the 2004 Belgian Grand Prix to beat the 47 year old record held by Juan Manuel Fangio.

Michael Schumacher

German racing driver (born 1969)

This article is about the retired German racing driver. For his son who is also a racing driver, see Mick Schumacher. For the Luxembourgian athlete, see Mike Schumacher.

Michael Schumacher (German: [ˈmɪçaːʔeːl ˈʃuːmaxɐ] ^ⓘ; born 3 January 1969) is a German former racing driver who competed in Formula One for Jordan, Benetton, Ferrari, and Mercedes. Schumacher has a joint-record seven World Drivers' Championship titles (tied with Lewis Hamilton); at the time of his retirement from the sport in 2012, he also held the records for the most wins (91), pole positions (68), and podium finishes (155)—which have since been broken by Hamilton—while he maintains the record for consecutive Drivers' Championships and number of total fastest laps (77), among others.

Born to working-class parents, Schumacher started his racing career in karting. He won his first karting championship aged six in a kart built from discarded parts. After having enjoyed success in karting—such as winning the 1987 European karting championship—and in several single-seater series, Schumacher made a one-off Formula One appearance with Jordan at the Belgian Grand Prix. He was signed by Benetton for the rest of the 1991 season, winning his first and second drivers' titles consecutively in 1994 and 1995 with the team. Schumacher moved to the struggling Ferrari team in 1996. During his first few years with the team, Schumacher lost out on the title in the final race of the season in 1997 and 1998, and suffered a broken leg from a brake failure in 1999. He and Ferrari won five consecutive titles from 2000 to 2004, including unprecedented sixth and seventh titles, while breaking several records. After finishing third in 2005 and second in 2006, Schumacher retired from the sport, although he later made a brief return with Mercedes from 2010 to 2012.

Schumacher was noted for pushing his car to the very limit for sustained periods during races, a pioneering fitness regimen, and ability to galvanise teams around him. He and his younger brother Ralf are the only siblings to win races in Formula One and the first siblings to finish first and second in the same race, a feat they repeated in four subsequent races. Schumacher was twice involved in collisions in the final race of a season that decided the title: first with Damon Hill at the 1994 Australian Grand Prix, and later with Jacques Villeneuve at the 1997 European Grand Prix.

Appointed UNESCO Champion for Sport in 2002, Schumacher has been involved in humanitarian projects and has donated tens of millions of dollars to charity.

In December 2013, Schumacher suffered a severe brain injury in a skiing accident. He was placed in a medically induced coma until June 2014. He left the hospital in Grenoble for further rehabilitation at the Lausanne University Hospital, before being relocated to his home to receive medical treatment and rehabilitation privately in September 2014.

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30 August 1967 – Thurgood Marshall is confirmed as the first African American Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Thurgood Marshall

US Supreme Court justice from 1967 to 1991

For other uses, see Thurgood Marshall (disambiguation).

Thoroughgood "Thurgood" Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) was an American civil rights lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1967 until 1991. He was the Supreme Court's first African-American justice. Prior to his judicial service, he was an attorney who fought for civil rights, leading the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. Marshall was a prominent figure in the movement to end racial segregation in American public schools. He won 29 of the 32 civil rights cases he argued before the Supreme Court, culminating in the Court's landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which rejected the separate but equal doctrine and held segregation in public education to be unconstitutional. President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Marshall to the Supreme Court in 1967. A staunch liberal, he frequently dissented as the Court became increasingly conservative.

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Marshall attended Lincoln University and the Howard University School of Law. At Howard, he was mentored by Charles Hamilton Houston, who taught his students to be "social engineers" willing to use the law to fight for civil rights. Marshall opened a law practice in Baltimore but soon joined Houston at the NAACP in New York. They worked together on the segregation case of Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada; after Houston returned to Washington, Marshall took his place as special counsel of the NAACP, and he became director-counsel of the newly formed NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. He participated in numerous landmark Supreme Court cases involving civil rights, including Smith v. Allwright, Morgan v. Virginia, Shelley v. Kraemer, McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, Sweatt v. Painter, Brown, and Cooper v. Aaron. His approach to desegregation cases emphasized the use of sociological data to show that segregation was inherently unequal.

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Marshall to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, where he favored a broad interpretation of constitutional protections. Four years later, Johnson appointed him as the U.S. Solicitor General. In 1967, Johnson nominated Marshall to replace Justice Tom C. Clark on the Supreme Court; despite opposition from Southern senators, he was confirmed by a vote of 69 to 11. He was often in the majority during the consistently liberal Warren Court period, but after appointments by President Richard Nixon made the Court more conservative, Marshall frequently found himself in dissent. His closest ally on the Court was Justice William J. Brennan Jr., and the two voted the same way in most cases.

Marshall's jurisprudence was pragmatic and drew on his real-world experience. His most influential contribution to constitutional doctrine, the "sliding-scale" approach to the Equal Protection Clause, called on courts to apply a flexible balancing test instead of a more rigid tier-based analysis. He fervently opposed the death penalty, which in his view constituted cruel and unusual punishment; he and Brennan dissented in more than 1,400 cases in which the majority refused to review a death sentence. He favored a robust interpretation of the First Amendment in decisions such as Stanley v. Georgia, and he supported abortion rights in Roe v. Wade and other cases. Marshall retired from the Supreme Court in 1991 and was replaced by Clarence Thomas. He died in 1993.

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31 August 1997 – Diana, Princess of Wales, her companion Dodi Fayed and driver Henri Paul die in a car crash in Paris.

Death of Diana, Princess of Wales

1997 fatal car crash involving Diana, Princess of Wales

During the early hours of 31 August 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales, died from injuries sustained earlier that night in a fatal car crash in the Pont de l'Alma tunnel in Paris, France. Diana's partner, Dodi Fayed, and the driver of the Mercedes-Benz W140, Henri Paul, were found dead inside the car. Dodi's bodyguard, Trevor Rees-Jones, was seriously injured and was the only survivor of the crash.

In 1999, a French investigation found that Paul lost control of the vehicle at high speed while intoxicated by alcohol and under the effects of prescription drugs, and concluded that he was solely responsible for the crash. He was the deputy head of security at the Hôtel Ritz Paris and had earlier goaded paparazzi waiting for Diana and Fayed outside the hotel.^[3] Anti-depressants and traces of an anti-psychotic in his blood might have worsened Paul's inebriation.^[4] In 2008, a jury at the British inquest, Operation Paget, returned a verdict of unlawful killing through grossly negligent driving by Paul and the following paparazzi vehicles.^[5] Some media reports claimed that Rees-Jones survived because he was wearing a seat belt, but other investigations revealed that none of the occupants of the car were wearing them.^[6]

Diana was 36 years old when she died.^[7] Her death sparked an outpouring of public grief in the United Kingdom and the world,^[8] and her televised funeral was watched by an estimated 2.5 billion people.^[9] The royal family were criticised in the press for their reaction to Diana's death. Public interest in Diana has remained high and she continues to retain regular press coverage in the decades since her death.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Plan of Alma Tunnel" (PDF). Coroner's Inquests into the Deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Mr Dodi Al Fayed. Computer Aided Modelling Bureau, Metropolitan Police Service. November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2008. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Director: David Bartlett, Executive Producer: David Upshal. "The Coronation of Elizabeth II/The Death of Diana". Days That Shook the World.
4. ^ Nundy, Julian; Graves, David. "Diana crash caused by chauffeur, says report". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 13 November 2002.
5. ^ Rayner, Gordon (7 April 2008). "Diana jury blames paparazzi and Henri Paul for her 'unlawful killing'". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 25 April 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
6. ^ Sephton, Connor (28 August 2017). "Trevor Rees-Jones: What happened to the sole survivor of Diana's crash". Sky News. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
7. ^ Johnston, Carla B. (1998). Global News Access: The Impact of New Communications Technologies. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-275-95774-2. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference WorldMourns was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference TelevisionAudience was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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1 September 1914 – The last passenger pigeon, a female named Martha, dies in captivity in the Cincinnati Zoo.

Passenger pigeon

Extinct migratory pigeon previously endemic to North America

For the 2010 mumblecore film, see Passenger Pigeons (film).

The passenger pigeon or wild pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) is an extinct species of pigeon that was endemic to North America. Its common name is derived from the French word passager, meaning "passing by", due to the migratory habits of the species. The scientific name also refers to its migratory characteristics. The morphologically similar mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) was long thought to be its closest relative, and the two were at times confused, but genetic analysis has shown that the genus Patagioenas is more closely related to it than the Zenaida doves.

The passenger pigeon was sexually dimorphic in size and coloration. The male was 390 to 410 mm (15.4 to 16.1 in) in length, mainly gray on the upperparts, lighter on the underparts, with iridescent bronze feathers on the neck, and black spots on the wings. The female was 380 to 400 mm (15.0 to 15.7 in), and was duller and browner than the male overall. The juvenile was similar to the female, but without iridescence. It mainly inhabited the deciduous forests of eastern North America and was also recorded elsewhere, but bred primarily around the Great Lakes. The pigeon migrated in enormous flocks, constantly searching for food, shelter, and breeding grounds, and was once the most abundant bird in North America, numbering around 3 billion, and possibly up to 5 billion. A very fast flyer, the passenger pigeon could reach a speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). The bird fed mainly on mast, and also fruits and invertebrates. It practiced communal roosting and communal breeding, and its extreme gregariousness may be linked with searching for food and predator satiation.

Passenger pigeons were hunted by Native Americans, but hunting intensified after the arrival of Europeans, particularly in the 19th century. Pigeon meat was commercialized as cheap food, resulting in hunting on a massive scale for many decades. There were several other factors contributing to the decline and subsequent extinction of the species, including shrinking of the large breeding populations necessary for preservation of the species and widespread deforestation, which destroyed its habitat. A slow decline between about 1800 and 1870 was followed by a rapid decline between 1870 and 1890. In 1900, the last confirmed wild bird was shot in southern Ohio.^[2][4] The last captive birds were divided in three groups around the turn of the 20th century, some of which were photographed alive. Martha, thought to be the last passenger pigeon, died on September 1, 1914, at the Cincinnati Zoo. The eradication of the species is a notable example of anthropogenic extinction.

1. ^ "†Ectopistes Swainson 1827 (passenger pigeon)". PBDB.
2. ^ ^{a b} BirdLife International (2019). "Ectopistes migratorius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T22690733A152593137. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22690733A152593137.en. Retrieved November 19, 2021.
3. ^ "Ectopistes migratorius. NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
4. ^ Henninger, W. F. (1902). "A Preliminary List of the Birds of Middle Southern Ohio". The Wilson Bulletin. 14 (3): 77–93. ISSN 0043-5643. JSTOR 4153807.

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2 September 1992 – An earthquake in Nicaragua kills at least 116 people.

1992 Nicaragua earthquake

1992 earthquake and tsunami centered off the west coast of Nicaragua

The 1992 Nicaragua earthquake occurred off the coast of Nicaragua at 6:16 p.m. on 1 September. Some damage was also reported in Costa Rica. At least 116 people were killed and several more were injured. The earthquake was caused by movement on a convergent plate boundary. It created a tsunami disproportionately large for its surface wave magnitude.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference UNDHA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Arcos, Nicolas; Dunbar, Paula; Stroker, Kelly; Kong, Laura (2017-08-30). "The Legacy of the 1992 Nicaragua Tsunami". Eos.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Significant Earthquakes of the World in 1992". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2009-09-12.
4. ^ Kenji Satake (15 November 1994). "Mechanism of the 1992 Nicaragua tsunami earthquake". Geophysical Research Letters. 21 (23): 2519–2522. Bibcode:1994GeoRL..21.2519S. doi:10.1029/94GL02338.

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3 September 1935 – Sir Malcolm Campbell reaches a speed of 304.331 miles per hour on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, becoming the first person to drive an automobile over 300 mph

Malcolm Campbell

British racing driver and speed record holder (1885–1948)

For other people named Malcolm Campbell, see Malcolm Campbell (disambiguation).

Major Sir Malcolm Campbell MBE (11 March 1885 – 31 December 1948) was a British racing motorist and motoring journalist. He gained the world speed record on land and on water at various times, using vehicles called Blue Bird, including a 1921 Grand Prix Sunbeam. His son, Donald Campbell, carried on the family tradition by holding both land speed and water speed records.

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4 September 1977 – The Golden Dragon massacre took place in San Francisco.

Golden Dragon massacre

1977 shooting in San Francisco, California, USA

The Golden Dragon massacre^[1] was a gang-related mass shooting that took place on September 4, 1977, inside the Golden Dragon Restaurant at 822 Washington Street in Chinatown, San Francisco, California, United States. The five perpetrators, members of the Joe Boys, a Chinese youth gang, were attempting to kill leaders of the Wah Ching, a rival Chinatown gang. The attack left five people dead and 11 others injured, none of whom were gang members. Seven perpetrators were later convicted and sentenced in connection with the murders. The massacre led to the establishment of the San Francisco Police Department's Asian Gang Task Force, credited with ending gang-related violence in Chinatown by 1983. The restaurant itself closed in 2006.

1. ^ (traditional Chinese: 金龍酒樓大屠殺; simplified Chinese: 金龙酒楼大屠杀; Jyutping: Gam1lung4 zau2lau4 daai6tou4saat3; pinyin: Jīnlóng Jiǔlóu Dàtúshā)Donat, Hank (2002). "Notorious SF: Golden Dragon Massacre". MisterSF. Retrieved July 14, 2017.

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5 September 1960 – The boxer Muhammad Ali (then Cassius Clay) is awarded the gold medal for his first place in the light heavyweight boxing competition at the Olympic Games in Rome.

Muhammad Ali

American boxer and activist (1942–2016)

For other uses, see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation).

"Cassius Clay" redirects here. For other uses, see Cassius Clay (disambiguation).

Muhammad Ali (/ɑːˈliː/;^[2] born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an American professional boxer and activist. Nicknamed "the Greatest", he is regarded as one of the most significant sports figures of the 20th century and is often regarded as the greatest heavyweight boxer of all time. He held the Ring magazine heavyweight title from 1964 to 1970. He was the undisputed champion from 1974 to 1978 and the WBA and Ring heavyweight champion from 1978 to 1979. In 1999, he was named Sportsman of the Century by Sports Illustrated and the Sports Personality of the Century by the BBC.

Born and raised in Louisville, Kentucky, he began training as an amateur boxer at age 12. At 18, he won a gold medal in the light heavyweight division at the 1960 Summer Olympics and turned professional later that year. He converted to Islam after 1961. He won the world heavyweight championship, defeating Sonny Liston in a major upset on February 25, 1964, at age 22. During that year, he denounced his birth name as a "slave name" and formally changed his name to Muhammad Ali. In 1966, Ali refused to be drafted into the military, owing to his religious beliefs and ethical opposition to the Vietnam War, and was found guilty of draft evasion and stripped of his boxing titles. He stayed out of prison while appealing the decision to the Supreme Court, where his conviction was overturned in 1971. He did not fight for nearly four years and lost a period of peak performance as an athlete. Ali's actions as a conscientious objector to the Vietnam War made him an icon for the larger counterculture of the 1960s generation, and he was a very high-profile figure of racial pride for African Americans during the civil rights movement and throughout his career. As a Muslim, Ali was initially affiliated with Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam (NOI). He later disavowed the NOI, adhering to Sunni Islam.

He fought in several historic boxing matches, including his highly publicized fights with Sonny Liston, Joe Frazier (including the Fight of the Century, the biggest boxing event up until then), the Thrilla in Manila, and his fight with George Foreman in The Rumble in the Jungle. Ali thrived in the spotlight at a time when many boxers let their managers do the talking, and he became renowned for his provocative and outlandish persona. He was famous for trash-talking, often free-styled with rhyme schemes and spoken word poetry, and has been recognized as a pioneer in hip hop. He often predicted in which round he would knock out his opponent. As a boxer, Ali was known for his unorthodox movement, fancy footwork, head movement, and rope-a-dope technique, among others.

Outside boxing, Ali attained success as a spoken word artist, releasing two studio albums: I Am the Greatest! (1963) and The Adventures of Ali and His Gang vs. Mr. Tooth Decay (1976). Both albums received Grammy Award nominations. He also featured as an actor and writer, releasing two autobiographies. Ali retired from boxing in 1981 and focused on religion, philanthropy, and activism. In 1984, he made public his diagnosis of Parkinson's syndrome, which some reports attributed to boxing-related injuries, though he and his specialist physicians disputed this. He remained an active public figure globally, but in his later years made fewer public appearances as his condition worsened, and he was cared for by his family.

1. ^ ^{a b} Boxing record for Muhammad Ali from BoxRec (registration required). Retrieved June 5, 2016.
2. ^ Wells, John C. (2008). "Ali". Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. the former boxer Muhammad Ali pronounces ɑːˈliː

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16 September 1959 – The first successful photocopier, the Xerox 914, is introduced in a demonstration on live television from New York City.

Xerox 914

1959 model of photocopier produced by Xerox; first successful commercial photocopier

The Xerox 914 was the first successful commercial plain paper copier. Introduced in 1959 by the Haloid/Xerox company, it revolutionized the document-copying industry. The culmination of inventor Chester Carlson's work on the xerographic process, the 914 was fast and economical. The copier was introduced to the public on September 16, 1959, in a demonstration at the Sherry-Netherland Hotel in New York, shown on live television.^[1]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference wirtén was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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17 September 1978 – The Camp David Accords are signed by Israel and Egypt.

Camp David Accords

1978 political agreement between Egypt and Israel

Not to be confused with Camp David Principles.

The Camp David Accords were a pair of political agreements signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978,^[1] following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, the country retreat of the President of the United States in Maryland.^[2] The two framework agreements were signed at the White House and were witnessed by President Jimmy Carter. The second of these frameworks (A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel) led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty. Due to the agreement, Sadat and Begin received the shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. The first framework (A Framework for Peace in the Middle East), which dealt with the Palestinian territories, was written without participation of the Palestinians and was condemned by the United Nations.

1. ^ ^{a b} Quandt 1988, p. 2.
2. ^ Camp David Accords – Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archived 3 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine

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18 September 1911 – Russian Premier Peter Stolypin is shot at the Kiev Opera House.

Pyotr Stolypin

Russian politician (1862–1911)

In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Arkadyevich and the family name is Stolypin.

Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin (Russian: Пётр Аркадьевич Столыпин, IPA: [pʲɵtr ɐrˈkadʲjɪvʲɪtɕ stɐˈlɨpʲɪn]; 14 April [O.S. 2 April] 1862 – 18 September [O.S. 5 September] 1911) was a Russian statesman who served as the third prime minister and the interior minister of the Russian Empire from 1906 until his assassination in 1911. Known as the greatest reformer of Russian society and economy, his reforms caused unprecedented growth of the Russian state, which was halted by his assassination.

Born in Dresden, in the Kingdom of Saxony, to a prominent Russian aristocratic family, Stolypin became involved in government from his early 20s. His successes in public service led to rapid promotions, culminating in his appointment as interior minister under prime minister Ivan Goremykin in April 1906. In July, Goremykin resigned and was succeeded as prime minister by Stolypin.

As prime minister, Stolypin initiated major agrarian reforms, known as the Stolypin reform, that granted the right of private land ownership to the peasantry. His tenure was also marked by increased revolutionary unrest, to which he responded with a new system of martial law that allowed for the arrest, speedy trial, and execution of accused offenders. After numerous previous assassination attempts, Stolypin was fatally shot in September 1911 by revolutionary Dmitrii Bogrov in Kiev.

Stolypin was a monarchist and hoped to strengthen the throne by modernizing the rural Russian economy. Modernity and efficiency, rather than democracy, were his goals. He argued that the land question could only be resolved and revolution averted when the peasant commune was abolished and a stable landowning class of peasants, the kulaks, would have a stake in the status quo. His successes and failures have been the subject of heated controversy among scholars, who agree he was one of the last major statesmen of Imperial Russia with cogent and forceful public reform policies.^[1]

1. ^ Abraham Ascher, P. A. Stolypin: The Search for Stability in Late Imperial Russia (2001).

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21 September 1937 – J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit is published.

The Hobbit

1937 book by J. R. R. Tolkien

This article is about the children's book. For other uses, see Hobbit (disambiguation).

"There and Back Again" redirects here. For other uses, see There and Back Again (disambiguation).

The Hobbit, or There and Back Again is a children's fantasy novel by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published in 1937 to wide critical acclaim, being nominated for the Carnegie Medal and awarded a prize from the New York Herald Tribune for best juvenile fiction. The book is recognized as a classic in children's literature and is one of the best-selling books of all time, with over 100 million copies sold.

The Hobbit is set in Middle-earth and follows home-loving Bilbo Baggins, the hobbit of the title, who joins the wizard Gandalf and the thirteen dwarves of Thorin's Company, on a quest to reclaim the dwarves' home and treasure from the dragon Smaug. Bilbo's journey takes him from his peaceful rural surroundings into more sinister territory.

The story is told in the form of a picaresque or episodic quest; several chapters introduce a new type of monster or threat as Bilbo progresses through the landscape. Bilbo gains a new level of maturity, competence, and wisdom by accepting the disreputable, romantic, fey, and adventurous sides of his nature and applying his wits and common sense. The story reaches its climax in the Battle of Five Armies, where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict. Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story, along with motifs of warfare. These themes have led critics to view Tolkien's own experiences during World War I as instrumental in shaping the story. The author's scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in mythology and fairy tales are often noted as influences, but more recent fiction including adventure stories and the works of William Morris also played a part.

The publisher was encouraged by the book's critical and financial success and, therefore, requested a sequel. As Tolkien's work progressed on its successor, The Lord of the Rings, he made retrospective accommodations for it in The Hobbit. These few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition. Further editions followed with minor emendations, including those reflecting Tolkien's changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled. The work has never been out of print. Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage, screen, radio, board games, and video games. Several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits.

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