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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 December 2000 – The United States Supreme Court releases its decision in Bush v. Gore.

    Bush v. Gore

    Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court on December 12, 2000, that settled a recount dispute in Florida's 2000 presidential election between George W. Bush and Al Gore. On December 8, the Florida Supreme Court had ordered a statewide recount of all undervotes, over 61,000 ballots that the vote tabulation machines had missed. The Bush campaign immediately asked the U.S. Supreme Court to stay the decision and halt the recount. Justice Antonin Scalia, convinced that all the manual recounts being performed in Florida's counties were illegitimate, urged his colleagues to grant the stay immediately.[1] On December 9, the five conservative justices on the Court granted the stay, with Scalia citing "irreparable harm" that could befall Bush, as the recounts would cast "a needless and unjustified cloud" over Bush's legitimacy. In dissent, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote that "counting every legally cast vote cannot constitute irreparable harm."[1] Oral arguments were scheduled for December 11.

    In a 5–4 per curiam decision, the Court ruled, strictly on equal protection grounds, that the recount be stopped. Specifically, it held that the use of different standards of counting in different counties violated the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution; the case had also been argued on Article II jurisdictional grounds, which found favor with only Justices Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and William Rehnquist. The Court then ruled as to a remedy, deciding against the remedy proposed by Justices Stephen Breyer and David Souter to send the case back to Florida to complete the recount using a uniform statewide standard before the scheduled December 18 meeting of Florida's electors in Tallahassee.[1] Instead, the majority held that no alternative method could be established within the discretionary December 12 "safe harbor" deadline set by Title 3 of the United States Code (3 U.S.C.), § 5, which the Florida Supreme Court had stated that the Florida Legislature intended to meet.[2] The Court, holding that not meeting the "safe harbor" deadline would violate the Florida Election Code, rejected a remedy proposed by Breyer and Souter to allow the Florida court to finish counting disputed ballots under uniform guidelines. That deadline arrived two hours after the release of the Court's decision.

    The Supreme Court's decision in Bush v. Gore was among the most controversial in U.S. history, as it allowed the vote certification made by Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris to stand, giving Bush Florida's 25 electoral votes. Florida's votes gave Bush, the Republican nominee, 271 electoral votes, one more than the 270 required to win the Electoral College. This meant the defeat of Democratic candidate Al Gore, who won 267 electoral votes but received 266, as a "faithless elector" from the District of Columbia abstained from voting. Media organizations later analyzed the ballots and found that, under specified criteria, the original, limited recount of undervotes of several large counties would have resulted in a Bush victory, though a statewide recount would have shown that Gore received the most votes. Florida later retired the punch-card voting machines that produced the ballots disputed in the case.[3][4][5]

    1. ^ a b c Margolick, David (October 2004). "The Path to Florida". Vanity Fair. Condé Nast.
    2. ^ "Search – Supreme Court of the United States". www.supremecourt.gov.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference FBP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference battle was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference NORCc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 December 2000 – The "Texas Seven" escape from the John B. Connally Unit near Kenedy, Texas, and go on a robbery spree, during which police officer Aubrey Hawkins is shot and killed.

    Texas Seven

    The seven inmates involved in the escape.
    Top row, left to right, Joseph Garcia, Randy Halprin, Larry James Harper, and Patrick Murphy Jr.
    Bottom row, left to right, Donald Newbury, George Rivas, and Michael Anthony Rodriguez.

    The Texas 7 were a group of prisoners who escaped from the John B. Connally Unit near Kenedy, Texas, on December 13, 2000. Six of the seven were apprehended over a month later, between January 22–24, 2001, as a direct result of the television show America's Most Wanted. The seventh committed suicide before he could be arrested. The surviving members were all convicted and sentenced to death for the murder of Irving, Texas, police officer Aubrey Wright Hawkins, who was shot and killed when responding to a robbery perpetrated by the Texas Seven. Four of the six sentenced have since been executed.

     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 December 1918 – Portuguese President Sidónio Pais is assassinated.

    Sidónio Pais

    Sidónio Bernardino Cardoso da Silva Pais CavC OA CavA (pronounced [siˈðɔnju ˈpajʃ]; 1 May 1872 – 14 December 1918) was a Portuguese politician, military officer, and diplomat, who served as the fourth president of the First Portuguese Republic in 1918. One of the most divisive figures in modern Portuguese history, he was referred to by the writer Fernando Pessoa as the "President-King", a description that stuck in later years and symbolizes his regime.[1]

    1. ^ Fernando Pessoa (1918). "À memoria do Presidente-Rei Sidónio Pais". Quoted in Darlene Joy Sadler (1998), An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the Paradoxes of Authorship. Gainesville etc.: University of Florida Press, p. 45.
     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 December 2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to fortify it, without fixing its famous lean.

    Leaning Tower of Pisa

    The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: torre pendente di Pisa), or simply the Tower of Pisa (torre di Pisa [ˈtorre di ˈpiːza; ˈpiːsa][1]), is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of Pisa Cathedral. It is known for its nearly four-degree lean, the result of an unstable foundation. The tower is one of three structures in the Pisa's Cathedral Square (Piazza del Duomo), which includes the cathedral and Pisa Baptistry.

    The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183 feet 3 inches) from the ground on the low side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11 in) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tonnes (16,000 short tons).[2] The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase.

    The tower began to lean during construction in the 12th century, due to soft ground which could not properly support the structure's weight. It worsened through the completion of construction in the 14th century. By 1990, the tilt had reached 5.5 degrees.[3][4][5] The structure was stabilized by remedial work between 1993 and 2001, which reduced the tilt to 3.97 degrees.[6]

    1. ^ "DiPI Online". Dizionario di Pronuncia Italiana (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
    2. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa Facts". Leaning Tower of Pisa. Archived from the original on 11 September 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
    3. ^ "Europe | Saving the Leaning Tower". BBC News. 15 December 2001. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    4. ^ "Tower of Pisa". Archidose.org. 17 June 2001. Archived from the original on 26 June 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    5. ^ "Leaning Tower of Pisa (tower, Pisa, Italy)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
    6. ^ "Leaning tower of Pisa loses crooked crown". Irish News. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 December 1850 – The Charlotte Jane and the Randolph bring the first of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton, New Zealand.

    Charlotte Jane


    Charlotte Jane was one of the First Four Ships in 1850 to carry emigrants from England to the new colony of Canterbury in New Zealand.

    1. ^ a b c "Charlotte Jane". Canterbury Pilgrims and Early Settlers Association Inc. 2012. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 December 1790 – Discovery of the Aztec calendar stone.

    Aztec calendar stone

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  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 December 2010 – Anti-government protests begin in Tunisia, heralding the Arab Spring.

    Arab Spring

    The Arab Spring (Arabic: الربيع العربي, romanizedar-rabīʻ al-ʻarabī) or the First Arab Spring (to distinguish from the Second Arab Spring) was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in Tunisia in response to corruption and economic stagnation.[1][2] From Tunisia, the protests then spread to five other countries: Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria and Bahrain. Rulers were deposed (Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia in 2011, Muammar Gaddafi of Libya in 2011, Hosni Mubarak of Egypt in 2011, and Ali Abdullah Saleh of Yemen in 2012) or major uprisings and social violence occurred including riots, civil wars, or insurgencies. Sustained street demonstrations took place in Morocco, Iraq, Algeria, Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman and Sudan. Minor protests took place in Djibouti, Mauritania, Palestine, Saudi Arabia and the Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara.[3] A major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world is ash-shaʻb yurīd isqāṭ an-niẓām! (Arabic: الشعب يريد إسقاط النظام, lit.'the people want to bring down the regime').[4]

    The wave of initial revolutions and protests faded by mid-2012, as many Arab Spring demonstrations were met with violent responses from authorities,[5][6][7] pro-government militias, counterdemonstrators, and militaries. These attacks were answered with violence from protesters in some cases.[8][9][10] Multiple large-scale conflicts followed: the Syrian civil war;[11][12] the rise of ISIL,[13] insurgency in Iraq and the following civil war;[14] the Egyptian Crisis, coup, and subsequent unrest and insurgency;[15] the Libyan Crisis; and the Yemeni Crisis and subsequent civil war.[16] Regimes that lacked major oil wealth and hereditary succession arrangements were more likely to undergo regime change.[17]

    A power struggle continued after the immediate response to the Arab Spring. While leadership changed and regimes were held accountable, power vacuums opened across the Arab world. Ultimately, it resulted in a contentious battle between a consolidation of power by religious elites and the growing support for democracy in many Muslim-majority states.[18] The early hopes that these popular movements would end corruption, increase political participation, and bring about greater economic equity quickly collapsed in the wake of the counter-revolutionary moves by foreign state actors in Yemen,[19] the regional and international military interventions in Bahrain and Yemen, and the destructive civil wars in Syria, Iraq, Libya, and Yemen.[20]

    Some have referred to the succeeding and still ongoing conflicts as the Arab Winter.[11][12][14][15][16] As of May 2018, only the uprising in Tunisia has resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance.[3] Recent uprisings in Sudan and Algeria show that the conditions that started the Arab Spring have not faded and political movements against authoritarianism and exploitation are still occurring.[21] Since late 2018, multiple uprisings and protest movements in Algeria, Sudan, Iraq, Lebanon, and Egypt have been seen as a continuation of the Arab Spring.[22][23]

    As of 2021, multiple conflicts are still continuing that might be seen as a result of the Arab Spring. The Syrian Civil War has caused massive political instability and economic hardship in Syria, with the Syrian pound plunging to new lows.[24] In Libya, a major civil war recently concluded, with foreign powers intervening.[25][26] In Yemen, a civil war continues to affect the country.[27] In Lebanon, a major banking crisis is threatening the country's economy as well as that of neighboring Syria.

    1. ^ "Peddler's martyrdom launched Tunisia's revolution". Reuters. 19 January 2011.
    2. ^ "Uprisings in the region and ignored indicators". Payvand. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
    3. ^ a b Ruthven, Malise (23 June 2016). "How to Understand ISIS". New York Review of Books. 63 (11). Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference slogan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Many wounded as Moroccan police beat protestors was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Syria's crackdown was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bahrain troops lay siege to protesters' camp was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Syria clampdown on protests mirrors Egypt's as thugs join attacks was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yemeni government supporters attack protesters, injuring hundreds was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Libya Protests: Gaddafi Militia Opens Fire on demonstrators was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ a b Karber, Phil (18 June 2012). Fear and Faith in Paradise. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-1479-8. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
    12. ^ a b "Arab Winter". America. 28 December 2012. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
    13. ^ Al-Marashi, Ibrahim (2017), "Iraq and the Arab Spring: From Protests to the Rise of ISIS", The Arab Spring (2 ed.), Routledge, pp. 147–164, doi:10.4324/9780429494581-8, ISBN 978-0-429-49458-1, retrieved 6 August 2023
    14. ^ a b "Analysis: Arab Winter is coming to Baghdad". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
    15. ^ a b "Egypt and Tunisia's new 'Arab winter'". Euro news. 8 February 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
    16. ^ a b "Yemen's Arab winter". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
    17. ^ "Tracking the "Arab Spring": Why the Modest Harvest?". Journal of Democracy. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
    18. ^ Hoyle, Justin A. "A Matter of Framing: Explaining The Failure of Post-Islamist Social Movements in the Arab Spring." DOMES: Digest of Middle East Studies 25.2 (2016): 186–209. Academic Search Complete. Web. 18 November 2016.
    19. ^ Filkins, Dexter (2 April 2018). "A Saudi Prince's Quest to Remake the Middle East". The New Yorker. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
    20. ^ Hassan, Islam; Dyer, Paul (2017). "The State of Middle Eastern Youth". The Muslim World. 107 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1111/muwo.12175.
    21. ^ "The Long Arab Spring". jacobinmag.com. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
    22. ^ "From Lebanon to Iraq, the Arab Spring never ended, it just gets bigger". Middle East Eye.
    23. ^ "Are we seeing a new Arab Spring?". Are we seeing a new Arab Spring?.
    24. ^ "US 'Caesar Act' sanctions could devastate Syria's flatlining economy". The Guardian. 12 June 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
    25. ^ Libya has a chance at peace but Russia and the US are in the way Haftar seems to be on his way out, while Turkey risks creating a new Afghanistan on Europe's southern flank, by Ahmed Aboudouh, June 9, 2020. Russia's ally, General Khalifa Haftar, commander of the self-proclaimed National Libyan Army, has lost his 14-month military campaign to capture the capital Tripoli. His rivals in the Government of National Accord (GNA) forces, backed by -extremist militias, managed to chase his troops deep into the east of the country.
    26. ^ Danger of 'miscalculation' as global powers scramble for position in Libya. Fighting moves from west to centre and south of country, as Egypt advances towards border, and Tripoli ignores truce calls. Borzou Daragahi, Oliver Carroll. June 8, 2020.
    27. ^ Yemen's Government demands UN action regards Houthi violation of deal, Yemen's government has demanded UN action against Iran-backed Houthi militants for violating the Hodeidah deal, state news agency Saba New reported. Yemen's Economic Council – a state advisory body composed of cabinet members – said the militants looted the central bank in Hodeidah city and were delaying the fuel and food that arrive at the Hodeidah port. The looted funds were supposed to be used to pay salaries of public workers, who have not received payments for months, according to the report. This money will now "feed the militia's pointless war," the council said. On Wednesday, Yemen's Information Minister Muammar Al-Eryani said Houthis are looting and extorting the private healthcare sector.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 December 1998 – President Bill Clinton is impeached by the United States House of Representatives, becoming the second President of the United States to be impeached.

    Impeachment of Bill Clinton

    Bill Clinton, the 42nd president of the United States, was impeached by the United States House of Representatives of the 105th United States Congress on December 19, 1998, for "high crimes and misdemeanors". The House adopted two articles of impeachment against Clinton, with the specific charges against Clinton being lying under oath and obstruction of justice. Two other articles had been considered but were rejected by the House vote.

    Clinton's impeachment came after a formal House inquiry, which had been launched on October 8, 1998. The charges for which Clinton was impeached stemmed from a sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Clinton by Paula Jones. During pre-trial discovery in the lawsuit, Clinton gave testimony denying that he had engaged in a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. The catalyst for the president's impeachment was the Starr Report, a September 1998 report prepared by Ken Starr, Independent Counsel, for the House Judiciary Committee. The Starr Report included details outlining a sexual relationship between Clinton and Lewinsky[1] Clinton was the second American president to be impeached, the first being Andrew Johnson, who was impeached in 1868.[a]

    The approved articles of impeachment would be submitted to the United States Senate on January 7, 1999. A trial in the Senate then began, with Chief Justice William Rehnquist presiding. On February 12, Clinton was acquitted on both counts as neither received the necessary two-thirds majority vote of the senators present for conviction and removal from office—in this instance 67 votes were needed. On Article One, 45 senators voted to convict while 55 voted for acquittal. On Article Two, 50 senators voted to convict while 50 voted for acquittal.[3] Clinton remained in office for the remainder of his second term.[4]

    1. ^ Glass, Andrew (October 8, 2017). "House votes to impeach Clinton, Oct. 8, 1998". Politico. Archived from the original on September 28, 2020. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
    2. ^ "House begins impeachment of Nixon". history.com. A&E Television Networks. February 26, 2019 [Published November 24, 2009]. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
    3. ^ Baker, Peter (February 13, 1999). "The Senate Acquits President Clinton". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Co. Archived from the original on November 10, 2013. Retrieved December 4, 2013.
    4. ^ Riley, Russell L. (October 4, 2016). "Bill Clinton: Domestic Affairs". millercenter.org. Charlottesville, Virginia: The Miller Center, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on September 28, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2019.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 December 1987 – In the worst peacetime sea disaster, the passenger ferry Doña Paz sinks after colliding with the oil tanker Vector in the Tablas Strait in the Philippines, killing an estimated 4,000 people (1,749 official).

    MV Doña Paz

    MV Doña Paz was a Japanese-built and Philippine-registered passenger ferry that sank after it collided with the oil tanker Vector on December 20, 1987. Built by Onomichi Zosen of Hiroshima, Japan, the ship was launched on April 25, 1963 as the Himeyuri Maru with a passenger capacity of 608. In October 1975, the Himeyuri Maru was bought by Sulpicio Lines and renamed the Don Sulpicio. After a fire on board in June 1979, the ship was refurbished and renamed Doña Paz.

    Traveling from Leyte Island to the Philippine capital, Manila, the vessel was seriously overcrowded, with at least 2,000 passengers not listed on the manifest. It has also been claimed that the ship did not have a radio and that the life jackets were locked away. However, official blame was directed at the tanker Vector, which collided with the Doña Paz and was found to be unseaworthy and to be operating without a license, a lookout, or a qualified master. With an estimated death toll of 4,385 people and only 26 survivors, it remains the deadliest peacetime maritime disaster in history.[1][2]

    1. ^ "Ferry collides with oil tanker near Manila - HISTORY". April 1, 2019. Archived from the original on April 1, 2019. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
    2. ^ "7 of the World's Deadliest Shipwrecks". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 December 1832 – Egyptian–Ottoman War: Egyptian forces decisively defeat Ottoman troops at the Battle of Konya.

    Battle of Konya

    The battle of Konya was fought on December 21, 1832, between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, just outside the city of Konya in modern-day Turkey. The Egyptians were led by Ibrahim Pasha, while the Ottomans were led by Reşid Mehmed Pasha. The Egyptians were victorious.[3]

    1. ^ Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, (HarperCollins Publishers, 1993), 851.
    2. ^ McGregor, Andrew James, A Military History of Modern Egypt: from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War, (Greenwood Publishing Group Inc., 2006), 107.
    3. ^ a b McGregor, 107.
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 December 1956 – Colo, the first gorilla to be bred in captivity, is born at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium in Ohio.

    Colo (gorilla)

    Colo (December 22, 1956 – January 17, 2017) was a western gorilla widely known as the first gorilla to be born in captivity anywhere in the world and the oldest known gorilla in the world in 2017.[1][2][3][4] Colo was born at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium to Millie Christina (mother) and Baron Macombo (father), and lived there for her entire life. She was briefly called "Cuddles" before a contest was held to officially name her. (Mrs. Howard Brannon of Zanesville, Ohio, won the contest.)[5] Colo's name was derived from the place of her birth, Columbus, Ohio.[6]

    1. ^ "Colo, the oldest gorilla in captivity, dies aged 60". BBC News. January 18, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
    2. ^ James L. Newman (5 July 2013). Encountering Gorillas: A Chronicle of Discovery, Exploitation, Understanding, and Survival. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 125–8. ISBN 978-1-4422-1957-1.
    3. ^ Lyttle, Jeff (1997). Gorillas in Our Midst: The Story of the Columbus Zoo Gorillas. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. ISBN 9780814207666.
    4. ^ Jesse Donahue; Erik Trump (2007). Political Animals: Public Art in American Zoos and Aquariums. Lexington Books. pp. 99–102. ISBN 978-0-7391-1120-8.
    5. ^ Colo’s Story: The Life of One Grand Gorilla by Nancy Roe Pimm ISBN 978-0-9841554-4-6
    6. ^ "Columbus Zoo – Colo's Birthday!". Archived from the original on 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2016-09-08.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 December 1941 – World War II: After 15 days of fighting, the Imperial Japanese Army occupies Wake Island.

    Battle of Wake Island

    The Battle of Wake Island was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on Wake Island. The assault began simultaneously with the attack on Pearl Harbor naval and air bases in Hawaii on the morning of 8 December 1941 (7 December in Hawaii), and ended on 23 December, with the surrender of American forces to the Empire of Japan. It was fought on and around the atoll formed by Wake Island and its minor islets of Peale and Wilkes Islands by the air, land, and naval forces of the Japanese Empire against those of the United States, with Marines playing a prominent role on both sides.

    The battle started with a surprise bombing raid on December 8, 1941, within hours of Pearl Harbor, and the air raids continued almost every day for the duration of the battle. There were two amphibious assaults, one on December 11, 1941 (which was rebuffed) and another on December 23, that led to the Japanese capture of the atoll. In addition, there were several air battles above and around Wake and an encounter between two naval vessels. The U.S. lost control of the island and 12 fighter aircraft; in addition to the garrison being taken as prisoners of war, nearly 1200 civilian contractors were also captured by the Japanese. The Japanese lost about two dozen aircraft of different types, four surface vessels, and two submarines as part of the operation, in addition to at least 600 armed forces. It is typically noted that 98 civilian POWs captured in this battle were used for slave labor and then executed on Wake Island in October 1943. The other POWs were deported and sent to prisoner of war camps in Asia, with five executed on the sea voyage.

    The island was held by the Japanese for the duration of the Pacific War theater of World War II; the remaining Japanese garrison on the island surrendered to a detachment of United States Marines on 4 September 1945, after the earlier surrender on 2 September 1945 on the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay to General Douglas MacArthur.[8]

    1. ^ Naval and air personnel not included.
    2. ^ Dull 2007, p. 24.
    3. ^ Dull 2007, p. 26.
    4. ^ Martin Gilbert, the Second World War (1989) p. 282
    5. ^ "US ships lost in the Pacific during World War II". USMM.org. Retrieved 3 January 2014.
    6. ^ 20 later died in captivity
    7. ^ "The Defense of Wake". Ibiblio.org/.
    8. ^ "War in the Pacific NHP: Liberation - Guam Remembers". nps.gov. Archived from the original on 2012-12-17. Retrieved 2014-09-13.
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 December 1980 – Witnesses report the first of several sightings of unexplained lights near RAF Woodbridge, in Rendlesham Forest, Suffolk, England, United Kingdom, an incident called "Britain's Roswell".

    Rendlesham Forest incident

    The Rendlesham Forest incident was a series of reported sightings of unexplained lights near Rendlesham Forest in Suffolk, England, in December 1980, which became linked with UFO landings. The events occurred just outside RAF Woodbridge, which was used at the time by the United States Air Force (USAF). USAF personnel, including deputy base commander Lieutenant Colonel Charles I. Halt, claimed to see things they described as a UFO.

    The occurrence is the most famous of alleged UFO events to have happened in the United Kingdom,[2] and is among the best-known reported UFO events worldwide. It has been compared to the Roswell UFO incident in the United States and is sometimes called "Britain's Roswell".[3]

    The UK Ministry of Defence has stated that the event posed no threat to national security, and therefore, it was never investigated as a security matter. Skeptics have explained the sightings as a misinterpretation of a series of nocturnal lights: a fireball, the Orfordness Lighthouse, and bright stars.[4]

    1. ^ Ridpath, Ian. "Rendlesham Forest photo album". Retrieved 21 June 2021.
    2. ^ "UFO files: Rendlesham Forest incident remains Britain's most tantalising sighting". The Telegraph. 21 June 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2013.
    3. ^ "Minister warned over 'UK Roswell'". BBC News. 17 August 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2009.
    4. ^ Ridpath, Ian. "The Rendlesham Forest UFO case". IanRidpath.com. Retrieved 17 April 2007.
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 December 1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Northern Territory Australia.

    Cyclone Tracy

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    Severe Tropical Cyclone Tracy was a small tropical cyclone that devastated the city of Darwin, in the Northern Territory of Australia, in December 1974. The small, developing, easterly storm was originally expected to pass clear of the city, but it would turn towards it early on 24 December. After 10:00 p.m. ACST, damage became severe, with wind gusts reaching 217 km/h (134.84 mph) before instruments failed. The anemometer in Darwin Airport control tower had its needle bent in half by the strength of the gusts.[1]

    Residents of Darwin were celebrating Christmas, and they did not immediately acknowledge the emergency, partly because they had been alerted to an earlier cyclone (Selma) which passed west of the city, not affecting it in any way. Additionally, news outlets had only a skeleton crew on duty over the holiday.

    Tracy killed 66 people and caused $837 million in damage (1974 AUD, about $7.69 billion in 2022), or about US$5.2 billion (2022 dollars). It destroyed more than 70 percent of Darwin's buildings, including 80 percent of houses.[2][3] It left more than 25,000 out of the 47,000 inhabitants of the city homeless prior to landfall and required the evacuation of over 30,000 people,[4] of whom many never returned. After the storm passed, the city was rebuilt using more stringent standards "to cyclone code". The storm is the second-smallest tropical cyclone on record (in terms of gale-force wind diameter), behind only the North Atlantic's Tropical Storm Marco in 2008.[5]

    1. ^ "National Museum of Australia - Cyclone Tracy". www.nma.gov.au. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
    2. ^ "NT coroner hands down finding on Cyclone Tracy deaths". ABC News. 18 March 2005. Archived from the original on 5 April 2005. Retrieved 24 March 2006.
    3. ^ "Tropical cyclone extremes". Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
    4. ^ "Event – Cyclone Tracy". Attorney-General’s Department Disasters Database. Australian Emergency Management Institute. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
    5. ^ James L. Franklin (4 November 2008). "Tropical Cyclone Report: Tropical Storm Marco" (PDF). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 23 January 2009.
     
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    26 December 1135 – Coronation of King Stephen of England.

    Stephen, King of England

    Stephen (1092 or 1096 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was King of England from 22 December 1135 to his death in 1154. He was Count of Boulogne jure uxoris from 1125 until 1147 and Duke of Normandy from 1135 until 1144. His reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda, whose son, Henry II, succeeded Stephen as the first of the Angevin kings of England.

    Stephen was born in the County of Blois in central France as the fourth son of Stephen-Henry, Count of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror. His father died while Stephen was still young, and he was brought up by his mother. Placed into the court of his uncle Henry I of England, Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands. He married Matilda of Boulogne, inheriting additional estates in Kent and Boulogne that made the couple one of the wealthiest in England. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I's son, William Adelin, in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120; William's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge. When Henry died in 1135, Stephen quickly crossed the English Channel and, with the help of his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester and Abbot of Glastonbury, took the throne, arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I's daughter, the Empress Matilda.

    The early years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a series of attacks on his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland, Welsh rebels, and the Empress Matilda's husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. In 1138, the Empress's half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his close advisor, Waleran de Beaumont, Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule, including arresting a powerful family of bishops. When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, and it took hold in the south-west of England. Captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141, he was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy. He was freed only after his wife and William of Ypres, one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the Rout of Winchester, but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage.

    Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne. The King tried to convince the church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim; Pope Eugene III refused, and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy. In 1153, the Empress's son Henry invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford, but neither side's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle. Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over William, Stephen's second son. Stephen died the following year. Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which his personality, external events, or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war.

     
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    27 December 1845 – Ether anesthetic is used for childbirth for the first time by Dr. Crawford Long in Jefferson, Georgia.

    Diethyl ether

    Diethyl ether, or simply ether, is an organic compound in the ether class with the formula C4H10O, (CH3CH2)2O or (C2H5)2O, sometimes abbreviated as Et2O.[a] It is a colourless, highly volatile, sweet-smelling ("ethereal odour"), extremely flammable liquid. It is commonly used as a solvent in laboratories and as a starting fluid for some engines. It was formerly used as a general anesthetic, until non-flammable drugs were developed, such as halothane. It has been used as a recreational drug to cause intoxication.

    1. ^ a b c d e f NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0277". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
    2. ^ Merck Index, 10th Edition, Martha Windholz, editor, Merck & Co., Inc, Rahway, NJ, 1983, page 551
    3. ^ "Diethyl ether_msds".
    4. ^ "Diethyl ether". ChemSpider. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
    5. ^ Carl L. Yaws, Chemical Properties Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999, page 567
    6. ^ a b "Ethyl ether". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
    7. ^ a b "Ethyl Ether MSDS". J.T. Baker. Archived from the original on 2012-03-28. Retrieved 2010-06-24.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  17. Admin2

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    28 December 1065 – Westminster Abbey is consecrated.

    Westminster Abbey

    Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is an Anglican church in the City of Westminster, London, England. Since 1066, it has been the location of the coronations of 40 English and British monarchs and a burial site for 18 English, Scottish, and British monarchs. At least 16 royal weddings have taken place at the abbey since 1100.

    Although the origins of the church are obscure, an abbey housing Benedictine monks was on the site by the mid-10th century. The church got its first large building from the 1040s, commissioned by King Edward the Confessor, who is buried inside. Construction of the present church began in 1245 on the orders of Henry III. The monastery was dissolved in 1559, and the church was made a royal peculiar – a Church of England church, accountable directly to the sovereign – by Elizabeth I. The abbey, the Palace of Westminster and St. Margaret's Church became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987 because of their historic and symbolic significance.

    The church's Gothic architecture is chiefly inspired by 13th-century French and English styles, although some sections of the church have earlier Romanesque styles or later Baroque and modern styles. The Henry VII Chapel, at the east end of the church, is a typical example of Perpendicular Gothic architecture; antiquarian John Leland called it orbis miraculum ("the wonder of the world").

    The abbey is the burial site of more than 3,300 people, many prominent in British history: monarchs, prime ministers, poets laureate, actors, scientists, military leaders, and the Unknown Warrior. Due to the fame of the figures buried there, artist William Morris described the abbey as a "National Valhalla".

    1. ^ a b c d "Dimensions of Westminster Abbey" (PDF). Westminster Abbey. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
    2. ^ "Westminster Abbey (The Collegiate Church of St Peter)". Historic England. Archived from the original on 14 May 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
     
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    29 December 1890 – Wounded Knee Massacre on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, 300 Lakota killed by the United States 7th Cavalry Regiment.

    Wounded Knee Massacre

    The Wounded Knee Massacre, also known as the Battle of Wounded Knee, was the deadliest mass shooting in American history, involving nearly three hundred Lakota people shot and killed by soldiers of the United States Army.[5][6][7][8][9] The massacre, part of what the U.S. military called the Pine Ridge Campaign,[10] occurred on December 29, 1890,[11] near Wounded Knee Creek (Lakota: Čhaŋkpé Ópi Wakpála) on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, following a botched attempt to disarm the Lakota camp. The previous day, a detachment of the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment commanded by Major Samuel M. Whitside approached Spotted Elk's band of Miniconjou Lakota and 38 Hunkpapa Lakota near Porcupine Butte and escorted them five miles (eight kilometers) westward to Wounded Knee Creek, where they made camp. The remainder of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, led by Colonel James W. Forsyth, arrived and surrounded the encampment. The regiment was supported by a battery of four Hotchkiss mountain guns.[12] The Army was catering to the anxiety of settlers who called the conflict the Messiah War and were worried the Ghost Dance signified a potentially dangerous Sioux resurgence. Historian Jeffrey Ostler wrote in 2004, "Wounded Knee was not made up of a series of discrete unconnected events. Instead, from the disarming to the burial of the dead, it consisted of a series of acts held together by an underlying logic of racist domination."[13]

    On the morning of December 29, the U.S. Cavalry troops went into the camp to disarm the Lakota. One version of events maintains that during the process of disarming the Lakota, a deaf tribesman named Black Coyote was reluctant to give up his rifle, claiming he had paid a lot for it.[14] Black Coyote's rifle went off at that point; the U.S. Army began shooting at the Lakota. The Lakota warriors fought back, but many had already been stripped of their guns and disarmed.[15]

    By the time the massacre was over, more than 250 men, women and children of the Lakota had been killed and 51 were wounded (4 men and 47 women and children, some of whom died later); some estimates placed the number of dead as high as 300.[3] Twenty-five soldiers also were killed and thirty-nine were wounded (six of the wounded later died).[16] Nineteen soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor specifically for Wounded Knee, and overall 31 for the campaign.[17][18] In 2001, the National Congress of American Indians passed two resolutions condemning the military awards and called on the federal government to rescind them.[19] The Wounded Knee National Historic Landmark, the site of the massacre, has been designated a National Historic Landmark by the U.S. Department of the Interior.[11] In 1990, both houses of the U.S. Congress passed a resolution on the historical centennial formally expressing "deep regret" for the massacre.[20]

    1. ^ Utley (2004), p. 201.
    2. ^ Brown (2009), p. 178, Brown states that at the army camp, "the Indians were carefully counted." Utley (2004), p. 204, gives 120 men, 230 women and children; there is no indication how many were warriors, old men, or incapacitated sick like Foot.
    3. ^ a b "Plains Humanities: Wounded Knee Massacre". Archived from the original on December 10, 2014. Retrieved December 9, 2014. resulted in the deaths of more than 250, and possibly as many as 300, Indians.
    4. ^ Nelson A. Miles to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 13, 1917, "The official reports make the number killed 90 warriors and approximately 200 women and children."
    5. ^ "The Worst Mass Shooting in U.S. History Was Not in Orlando". Big Think. June 14, 2016. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
    6. ^ Laura J. Nelson (June 15, 2016). "The worst mass shooting? A look back at massacres in U.S. history". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
    7. ^ Mike Anderson (June 19, 2016). "Wounded Knee, and the bloody history of mass shootings in the US". Rapid City Journal. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
    8. ^ Kale Williams (June 13, 2016). "Orlando headlines gloss over Native American massacres". Oregonian/OregonLive. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
    9. ^ Letters (October 5, 2017). "Deadliest mass shooting in modern US history – Wounded Knee, not Las Vegas". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
    10. ^ Greene, Jerome A. (January 31, 2007). Indian War Veterans: Memories of Army Life and Campaigns in the West, 1864–1898. Savas Beatie. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-61121-022-4.
    11. ^ a b "National Historic Landmarks Program: Wounded Knee". National Park Service. Archived from the original on January 10, 2003. Retrieved January 10, 2008.
    12. ^ Liggett, Lorie (1998). "Wounded Knee Massacre – An Introduction". Bowling Green State University. Archived from the original on October 30, 2000. Retrieved March 2, 2007.
    13. ^ PRUCHA, FRANCIS PAUL (2005). Ostler, Jeffrey (ed.). "Wounded Knee through the Lens of Colonialism". Diplomatic History. 29 (4): 725–728. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.2005.00512.x. ISSN 0145-2096. JSTOR 24915067.
    14. ^ Parsons, Randy. "The Wounded Knee Massacre – December 1890". Lastoftheindependents.com. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved August 17, 2011.
    15. ^ "PBS – The West – Like Grass Before the Sickle". www.pbs.org.
    16. ^ Jack Utter (1991). Wounded Knee & the Ghost Dance Tragedy (1st ed.). National Woodlands Publishing Company. p. 25. ISBN 0-9628075-1-6.
    17. ^ Greene, Jerome A. (2014). American Carnage: Wounded Knee, 1890. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 417–418. ISBN 978-0-8061-4448-1.
    18. ^ "An alternative proposal for the Wounded Knee medal problem". January 3, 2024.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Congress was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ AP (October 29, 1990). "Congress Adjourns – Century Afterward, Apology For Wounded Knee Massacre". The New York Times. Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (Sd); United States. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
     
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    30 December 1066 – Granada massacre: A Muslim mob storms the royal palace in Granada, crucifies Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacres most of the Jewish population of the city.

    1066 Granada massacre

    37°10′37″N 3°35′24″W / 37.17694°N 3.59000°W / 37.17694; -3.59000

    The 1066 Granada massacre took place on 30 December 1066 (9 Tevet 4827; 10 Safar 459 AH) when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, in the Taifa of Granada,[1] killed and crucified[2] the Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela, and massacred much of the Jewish population of the city.[3][4]

    1. ^ Molins 2010, p. 34.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference JE1906 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Lucien Gubbay (1999). Sunlight and Shadow: The Jewish Experience of Islam. New York: Other Press. p. 80. ISBN 1-892746-69-7.
    4. ^ Norman Roth (1994). Jews, Visigoths, and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict. Netherlands: E. J. Brill. p. 110. ISBN 90-04-09971-9.
     
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    31 December 1963 – The Central African Federation officially collapses, subsequently becoming Zambia, Malawi and Rhodesia.

    Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

    Administrative divisions of the federation

    The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also known as the Central African Federation (CAF), was a colonial federation that consisted of three southern African territories: the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia and the British protectorates of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. It existed between 1953 and 1963.

    The Federation was established on 1 August 1953,[1][2] with a Governor-General as the Queen's representative at the centre. The constitutional status of the three territories – a self-governing Colony and two Protectorates – was not affected, though certain enactments applied to the Federation as a whole as if it were part of Her Majesty's dominions and a Colony.[3] A novel feature was the African Affairs Board, set up to safeguard the interests of Africans and endowed with statutory powers for that purpose, particularly in regard to discriminatory legislation.[3][4] The economic advantages to the Federation were never seriously called into question, and the causes of the Federation's failure were purely political: the strong and growing opposition of the African inhabitants.[3][4]: 393  The rulers of the new black African states were united in wanting to end colonialism in Africa. With most of the world moving away from colonialism during the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United Kingdom was subjected to pressure to de-colonise from both the United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). These groups supported the aspirations of the black African nationalists and accepted their claims to speak on behalf of the people.

    The federation officially ended on 31 December 1963.[5][6] In 1964, shortly after the dissolution, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became independent under the names Zambia and Malawi, respectively. In November 1965, Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom as the state of Rhodesia.

    1. ^ Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Act, 1953 of the United Kingdom (1 and 2 EI, 2, c. 30)
    2. ^ Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Constitution) Order in Council, 1953 of the United Kingdom, S.I. 1953 No. 1199, p. 1804
    3. ^ a b c Roberts-Wray, Kenneth (1966). Commonwealth and Colonial Law. London: Stevens. p. 745.
    4. ^ a b Somerville, J. J. B. (1963). "The Central African Federation". International Affairs. 39 (3): 386–402. doi:10.2307/2611207. JSTOR 2611207 – via JSTOR.
    5. ^ Rhodesia and Nyasaland Act, 1964
    6. ^ Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Dissolution) Order in Council, 1963, S.I. 1963 No. 2085, p.4477.
     
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    1 January 1788 – First edition of The Times of London, previously The Daily Universal Register, is published.

    The Times

    The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, adopting its modern name on 1 January 1788. The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times (founded in 1821) are published by Times Media, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, in turn wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times, which do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have had common ownership only since 1966.[2] In general, the political position of The Times is considered to be centre-right.[3]

    The Times was the first newspaper to bear that name, inspiring numerous other papers around the world, such as The Times of India and The New York Times. In countries where these other titles are popular, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times[4] or The Times of London,[5] although the newspaper is of national scope and distribution. It is considered a newspaper of record in the UK.[6]

    The Times had an average daily circulation of 365,880 in March 2020; in the same period, The Sunday Times had an average weekly circulation of 647,622.[1] The two newspapers also had 304,000 digital-only paid subscribers as of June 2019.[7] An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006.[8] The Times has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the digitised paper, up to 2019, is online from Gale Cengage Learning.[9][10]

    1. ^ a b Tobitt, Charlotte; Majid, Aisha (25 January 2023). "National press ABCs: December distribution dive for freesheets Standard and City AM". Press Gazette. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
    2. ^ "Full History of the Times Newspaper". 13 November 2019. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
    3. ^ Christina Schaeffner, ed. (2009). Political Discourse, Media and Translation. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 9781443817936. With regard to political affiliation The Daily Telegraph is a right-wing paper, The Times centre-right, The Financial Times centre-right and liberal, and The Guardian centre-left.
    4. ^ Barbour, Lucy (4 July 2011). "London Times posts digital subs rise". AdNews. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
    5. ^ Potter, Mitch (26 January 2008). "Times' editorial page calls for intervention to save Winehouse". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2014. LONDON–The weighty editorial page of The Times of London doesn't make a habit of devoting thought to the travails of pop singers, whose exploits now more than ever keep the red-top British tabloids afroth.
    6. ^ "The UK's 'other paper of record'". BBC News. 19 January 2004. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024.
    7. ^ "The Times & The Sunday Times surpass 300,000 digital-only subscribers". News UK. Archived from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
    8. ^ Pfanner, Eric (27 May 2006). "Times of London to Print Daily U.S. Edition". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 4 November 2008.
    9. ^ "The Times Digital Archive". Gale Cengage Learning. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
    10. ^ Bingham, Adrian. "The Times Digital Archive, 1785–2006 (Gale Cengage)," English Historical Review (2013) 128#533 pp: 1037–1040. doi:10.1093/ehr/cet144
     
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    2 January 1955 – Panamanian president José Antonio Remón Cantera is assassinated.

    José Antonio Remón Cantera

    Colonel José Antonio Remón Cantera (11 April 1908 – 2 January 1955) was the 29th President of Panama, holding office from 1 October 1952 until his death on January 2, 1955. He was Panama's first military strongman and ruled the country behind the scenes in the late 1940s. He belonged to the National Patriotic Coalition (CNP), and was its candidate for president in May 1952.

    He joined the National Police in 1931, becoming its chief in 1947.[1] In this position, he was responsible for the coup against acting president Daniel Chanis Pinzón.[citation needed]

    Beginning in 1953, his administration began to negotiate amendments to the Panama Canal treaty with the U.S. administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. These negotiations led to an agreement, ratified in 1955, that substantially raised the annual annuity paid to Panama (from $430,000 to $1.9 million) and resulted in the handover of approximately $20 million in property from the Panama Canal Company to Panama.[citation needed]

    General José Remón was the strong man behind the scenes during the 1940s. He engineered several coups that ousted Dr. Arnulfo Arias and two other presidents from power. "Neither millions nor alms – we want justice" was Remón's most memorable statement of principles. In 1952 Remón went on to be "elected" President of Panama in a very questionable election replete with many clear examples of fraud and police interference in Remon's favor.[1]

    He was Panama's first military strong man, deposing and appointing presidents as he desired. After eschewing political positions, he turned around and ran for president in 1952. The opposition was bullied and persecuted during the campaign and on election day. He was declared the winner in May 1952. On 2 January 1955, Remón was ambushed at a race track and fired upon by three assailants armed with sub-machine guns. The incident took place at 7:30 pm; Remón died in hospital two hours later. Two other men were killed in the attack, including one of Remón's bodyguards.[2]

    1. ^ a b Shultz, Richard H. (2000) [1993]. In the Aftermath of War. DIANE Publishing. pp. 5–6. ISBN 9781428992719.
    2. ^ "Assassins Fire From Ambush At Race Track". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 3 January 1955. pp. 1, 4.
     
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    3 January 1956 – A fire damages the top part of the Eiffel Tower.

    Eiffel Tower

    The Eiffel Tower (/ˈfəl/ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

    Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.[8]

    The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

    The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

    1. ^ a b Bachman, Leonard R. (2019). Constructing the Architect: An Introduction to Design, Research, Planning, and Education. p. 80. ISBN 9781351665421.
    2. ^ a b "Eiffel Tower". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
    3. ^ "Intermediate floor of the Eiffel tower".
    4. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
    5. ^ SETE. "The Eiffel Tower at a glance". Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
    6. ^ Tourism Statistics, "Visit Paris Region" site of the Paris Ile de France Visitors Bureau, retrieved March 22, 2022.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Clayson, S. Hollis (26 February 2020), "Eiffel Tower", Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/obo/9780190922467-0014, ISBN 978-0-19-092246-7, retrieved 14 November 2021
    9. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
     
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    4 January 46 BC – Julius Caesar defeats Titus Labienus in the Battle of Ruspina.

    Battle of Ruspina

    The Battle of Ruspina was fought on 4 January 46 BC in the Roman province of Africa, between the Republican forces of the Optimates and forces loyal to Julius Caesar. The Republican army was commanded by Titus Labienus, Caesar's former lieutenant during the Gallic Wars who had defected to the Republican side at the beginning of the civil war.

    1. ^ Goldsworthy 2006, p. 459, The action outside Ruspina – it is sometimes described as a battle – was without doubt a defeat for Caesar, who had been prevented from his aim of gathering the supplies that his army required..
     
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    5 January 1968 – Alexander Dubček comes to power: "Prague Spring" begins in Czechoslovakia.

    Prague Spring

    The Prague Spring (Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization and mass protest in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Alexander Dubček was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), and continued until 21 August 1968, when the Soviet Union and most Warsaw Pact members invaded the country to suppress the reforms.

    The Prague Spring reforms were a strong attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech and travel. After national discussion of dividing the country into a federation of three republics, Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia and Slovakia, Dubček oversaw the decision to split into two, the Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic.[1] This dual federation was the only formal change that survived the invasion.

    The reforms, especially the decentralization of administrative authority, were not received well by the Soviets, who, after failed negotiations, sent half a million Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. The New York Times cited reports of 650,000 men equipped with the most modern and sophisticated weapons in the Soviet military catalogue.[2] A massive wave of emigration swept the nation. Resistance was mounted throughout the country, involving attempted fraternization, sabotage of street signs, defiance of curfews, etc. While the Soviet military had predicted that it would take four days to subdue the country, the resistance held out for almost eight months until diplomatic maneuvers finally circumvented it. It became a high-profile example of civilian-based defense; there were sporadic acts of violence and several protest suicides by self-immolation (the most famous being that of Jan Palach), but no military resistance. Czechoslovakia remained a Soviet satellite state until 1989 when the Velvet Revolution peacefully ended the communist regime; the last Soviet troops left the country in 1991.

    After the invasion, Czechoslovakia entered a period known as normalization (Czech: normalizace, Slovak: normalizácia), in which new leaders attempted to restore the political and economic values that had prevailed before Dubček gained control of the KSČ. Gustáv Husák, who replaced Dubček as First Secretary and also became President, reversed almost all of the reforms. The Prague Spring inspired music and literature including the work of Václav Havel, Karel Husa, Karel Kryl and Milan Kundera's novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being.

    1. ^ Czech radio broadcasts 18–20 August 1968
    2. ^ "New York Times September 2, 1968".
     
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    6 January 1994 – Nancy Kerrigan is clubbed on the knee at the U.S. Figure Skating Championships in Detroit, Michigan.

    Nancy Kerrigan

    Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox figure skater with unknown parameter "formercoach"

    Nancy Ann Kerrigan (born October 13, 1969)[2] is an American former figure skater. She won bronze medals at the 1991 World Championships and the 1992 Winter Olympics, silver medals at the 1992 World Championships and the 1994 Winter Olympics, as well as the 1993 US National Figure Skating Championship. Kerrigan was inducted into the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2004.

    On January 6, 1994, an assailant used a police baton to strike Kerrigan on her landing knee; the attacker was hired by the ex-husband of her rival Tonya Harding. The attack injured Kerrigan, but she quickly recovered. Harding and Kerrigan both participated in the 1994 Winter Olympics, but after the Games, Harding was permanently banned from competitive figure skating. At the Olympics, Kerrigan won the silver medal in a controversial showdown with gold medal winner Oksana Baiul. She then started touring and performed with several ice skating troupes that included Champions on Ice and Broadway on Ice. In 2017, she was a contestant on Dancing with the Stars.

    1. ^ Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Nancy Kerrigan". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 20, 2011. Retrieved June 3, 2011.
    2. ^ "Nancy Kerrigan Biography" Ice Skater, Athlete (1969–)". Biography.com (FYI / A&E Networks). Archived from the original on March 15, 2016. Retrieved March 22, 2016.
     
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    7 January 1610 – Galileo Galilei makes his first observation of the four Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto, Io and Europa, although he is not able to distinguish the last two until the following day.

    Galileo Galilei

    Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei (/ˌɡælɪˈl ˌɡælɪˈl/ GAL-il-AY-oh GAL-il-AY, US also /ˌɡælɪˈl -/ GAL-il-EE-oh -⁠, Italian: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛːi]) or simply Galileo, was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. He was born in the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence.[3] Galileo has been called the father of observational astronomy,[4] modern-era classical physics,[5] the scientific method,[6] and modern science.[7]

    Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of the pendulum and "hydrostatic balances". He was one of the earliest Renaissance developers of the thermoscope[8] and the inventor of various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects. With an improved telescope he built, he observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters and sunspots. He also built an early microscope.

    Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the Sun) was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted biblical creationism.[9][10][11]

    Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point.[9] He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest.[12][13] During this time, he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier.[14]

    1. ^ Science: The Definitive Visual Guide. United Kingdom: DK Publishing. 2009. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-7566-6490-9.
    2. ^ Drake 1978, p. 1.
    3. ^ Modinos, A. (2013). From Aristotle to Schrödinger: The Curiosity of Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 43. ISBN 978-3-319-00750-2.
    4. ^ Singer, C. (1941). A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century. Clarendon Press. p. 217.
    5. ^ Whitehouse, D. (2009). Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei & His Legacy to Modern Science. Sterling Publishing. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-4027-6977-1.
    6. ^ Thomas Hobbes: Critical Assessments, Volume 1. Preston King. 1993. p. 59
    7. ^ Disraeli, I. (1835). Curiosities of Literature. W. Pearson & Company. p. 371.
    8. ^ Valleriani, Matteo (2010). Galileo Engineer. Dordrecht Heidelberg; London; New York: Springer. p. 160. ISBN 978-90-481-8644-0.
    9. ^ a b Hannam 2009, pp. 329–344.
    10. ^ Sharratt 1994, pp. 127–131.
    11. ^ Finocchiaro 2010, p. 74.
    12. ^ Finocchiaro 1997, p. 47.
    13. ^ Hilliam 2005, p. 96.
    14. ^ Carney, J. E. (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 1500–1620: a.
     
  28. Admin2

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    8 January 1912 – The African National Congress is founded.

    African National Congress

    The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa. It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa. Cyril Ramaphosa, the incumbent national President, has served as President of the ANC since 18 December 2017.[8]

    Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans. When the National Party government came to power in 1948, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid. To this end, its methods and means of organisation shifted; its adoption of the techniques of mass politics, and the swelling of its membership, culminated in the Defiance Campaign of civil disobedience in 1952–53. The ANC was banned by the South African government between April 1960 – shortly after the Sharpeville massacre – and February 1990. During this period, despite periodic attempts to revive its domestic political underground, the ANC was forced into exile by increasing state repression, which saw many of its leaders imprisoned on Robben Island. Headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia, the exiled ANC dedicated much of its attention to a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the apartheid state, carried out under its military wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe, which was founded in 1961 in partnership with the South African Communist Party (SACP). The ANC was condemned as a terrorist organisation by the governments of South Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom. However, it positioned itself as a key player in the negotiations to end apartheid, which began in earnest after the ban was repealed in 1990.

    In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, although it is also a registered political party. Partly due to its Tripartite Alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions, it has retained a comfortable electoral majority at the national level and in most provinces, and has provided each of South Africa's five presidents since 1994. South Africa is considered a dominant-party state. However, the ANC's electoral majority has declined consistently since 2004, and in the most recent elections – the 2021 local elections – its share of the national vote dropped below 50% for the first time ever.[9] Over the last decade, the party has been embroiled in a number of controversies, particularly relating to widespread allegations of political corruption among its members.

    1. ^ Harper, Paddy (18 December 2022). "Existential crisis-ANC membership drops by more than one third in five years". Mail and Guardian. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
    2. ^ "South Africa • Africa Elects".
    3. ^ "How Democratic is the African National Congress? | Request PDF". Retrieved 16 February 2024.
    4. ^ Lissoni, Arianna; Soske, JON; Erlank, Natasha; Nieftagodien, Noor; Badsha, Omar, eds. (2012). One Hundred Years of the ANC. doi:10.18772/22012115737. ISBN 978-1-77614-287-3. JSTOR 10.18772/22012115737.
    5. ^ Fatton, Robert (2 February 1984). "The African National Congress of South Africa: The Limitations of a Revolutionary Strategy". Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines. 18 (3): 593–608. doi:10.2307/484771. JSTOR 484771.
    6. ^ "South Africa" (PDF). European Social Survey. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
    7. ^ Mapekuka, Vulindlela (November 2007). "The ANC and the Socialist International". Umrabulo. 30. African National Congress. Archived from the original on 24 September 2011.
    8. ^ Burke, Jason (18 December 2017). "Cyril Ramaphosa chosen to lead South Africa's ruling ANC party". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 19 December 2017.
    9. ^ Cele, S'thembile (4 November 2021). "ANC Support Falls Below 50% for First Time in South African Vote". Bloomberg. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
     
  29. Admin2

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    9 January 806 – Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson receives a state funeral and is interred in St Paul's Cathedral.

    Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson

    Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte KB (29 September [O.S. 18 September] 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. His inspirational leadership, grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics brought about a number of decisive British naval victories during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest naval commanders in history. His victory on 21 October 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar led to British naval supremacy for over another century and beyond.

    Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling, a high-ranking naval officer. Nelson rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command at the age of 20, in 1778. He developed a reputation for personal valour and a firm grasp of tactics, but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean. He fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica, where he was wounded and partially lost sight in one eye, and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while in command of HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after that battle, Nelson took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where the attack failed and he lost his right arm, forcing him to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion.

    In 1801, Nelson was dispatched to the Baltic Sea and defeated neutral Denmark at the Battle of Copenhagen. He commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade, in 1805. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelson's fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle became one of Britain's greatest naval victories, but Nelson, aboard HMS Victory, was fatally wounded by a French sharpshooter. His body was brought back to England, where he was accorded a state funeral.

    Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. His signal just prior to the commencement of the battle, "England expects that every man will do his duty", is regularly quoted and paraphrased. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory.

     
  30. Admin2

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    10 January 1863 – The London Underground, the world's oldest underground railway, opens between London Paddington station and Farringdon station.

    London Underground

    The London Underground (also known simply as the Underground or by its nickname the Tube) is a rapid transit system serving Greater London and some parts of the adjacent home counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in England.[5]

    The Underground has its origins in the Metropolitan Railway, opening on 10 January 1863 as the world's first underground passenger railway.[6] It is now part of the Circle, District, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines. The first line to operate underground electric traction trains, the City & South London Railway in 1890, is now part of the Northern line.[7]

    The network has expanded to 11 lines with 250 miles (400 km) of track.[8] However, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London; there are only 33 Underground stations south of the River Thames.[9] The system's 272 stations collectively accommodate up to 5 million passenger journeys a day.[10] In 2020/21 it was used for 296 million passenger journeys,[11] making it one of the world's busiest metro systems.

    The system's first tunnels were built just below the ground, using the cut-and-cover method; later, smaller, roughly circular tunnels—which gave rise to its nickname, the Tube—were dug through at a deeper level.[12] Despite its name, only 45% of the system is under the ground: much of the network in the outer environs of London is on the surface.[8]

    The early tube lines, originally owned by several private companies, were brought together under the Underground brand in the early 20th century, and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form London Transport under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). The current operator, London Underground Limited (LUL), is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in London.[12] As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares.[13] The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster card, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003.[14] Contactless bank card payments were introduced in 2014,[15] the first such use on a public transport system.[16]

    The LPTB commissioned many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style.[17][18][19] The schematic Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other transport systems besides the Underground, such as the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Thameslink, the Elizabeth line, and Tramlink. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and the Johnston typeface, created by Edward Johnston in 1916.

    1. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Key Facts was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ a b Transport for London (4 February 2023). "Public Transport Journeys by Type of Transport". London Datastore. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
    3. ^ "National Rail Enquiries – London Underground". www.nationalrail.co.uk. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
    4. ^ Transport for London (29 July 2019). "Facts & figures". Archived from the original on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
    5. ^ "An overview of the British rail industry" (PDF). Office of Rail and Road. 19 December 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
    6. ^ Lee, Charles E (1973). The Metropolitan Line. London: London Transport. p. 7. ISBN 0-85329 033 4.
    7. ^ Wolmar (2004), p. 135.
    8. ^ a b Attwooll, Jolyon (5 August 2015). "London Underground: 150 fascinating Tube facts". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
    9. ^ May, Jack (31 March 2017). "Why are there so few tube lines in South London?". City Monitor. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
    10. ^ "Daily Ridership". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 24 January 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
    11. ^ "Annual Report and Statement of Accounts" (PDF). Transport for London. 28 July 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 November 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
    12. ^ a b Croome & Jackson (1993), Preface.
    13. ^ "Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2011/12" (PDF). Transport for London. pp. 98, 100. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2015. Fares revenue on LU was £2,410m... Operating expenditure on the Underground increased to £2,630m
    14. ^ "Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 2011/12" (PDF). TfL. p. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
    15. ^ "Contactless payment on London Underground" (Press release). Transport for London. 9 September 2014. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
    16. ^ "Licencing London's contactless ticketing system" (Press release). Transport for London. 13 July 2016. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
    17. ^ "Design in Relation to the Problem: The London Underground". Commercial Art & Industry: 38–59. 1932. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
    18. ^ Sagittarius (1928). "Celebrities of Advertising II: Frank Pick". Commercial Art & Industry: 168–9. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
    19. ^ Barman, Christian (1948). "Frank Pick and his Influence on Design in England". Graphis: 70–73. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
     
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    11 January 1879 – The Anglo-Zulu War begins

    Anglo-Zulu War

    The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom. Following the passing of the British North America Act of 1867 forming a federation in Canada, Lord Carnarvon thought that a similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might lead to a ruling white minority over a black majority, which would provide a large pool of cheap labour for the British sugar plantations and mines, encompassing the African Kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics into South Africa. In 1874, Sir Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to effect such plans. Among the obstacles were the armed independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand.[3]

    Frere, on his own initiative, sent a provocative ultimatum on 11 December 1878 to the Zulu king Cetshwayo and upon its rejection sent Lord Chelmsford to invade Zululand.[4][5][6][d] The war had several particularly bloody battles, including an opening victory of the Zulu at the Battle of Isandlwana, followed by the defence of Rorke's Drift by a small British Garrison from an attack by a large Zulu force. The British eventually won the war, ending Zulu dominance of the region. The Zulu Kingdom was then made a protectorate and later annexed by the British Empire in 1887.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Morris 1998, p. 498.
    2. ^ Knight & Castle 1999, p. 115.
    3. ^ Knight (1992, 2002), p. 8.
    4. ^ Spiers 2006, p. 41.
    5. ^ Colenso 1880, pp. 261–262.
    6. ^ Morris 1998, pp. 291–292.
     
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    12 January 1959 – The Caves of Nerja are rediscovered in Spain.

    Caves of Nerja

    The Caves of Nerja (Spanish: Cueva de Nerja) are a series of caverns close to the town of Nerja in the Province of Málaga, Spain. Stretching for almost 5 kilometres (3.1 mi), the caverns are one of Spain's major tourist attractions. Concerts are regularly held in one of the chambers, which forms a natural amphitheatre.

    The caves were re-discovered in modern times on 12 January 1959 by five friends, who entered through a narrow sinkhole known as "La Mina". This forms one of the two natural entrances to the cave system. A third entrance was created in 1960 to allow easy access for tourists, just south of the Sierras of Tejeda, Almijara and Alhama Natural Park. The cave is divided into two main parts known as Nerja I and Nerja II. Nerja I includes the Show Galleries which are open to the public, with relatively easy access via a flight of stairs and concreted pathways to allow tourists to move about in the cavern without difficulty. Nerja II, which is not open to the public, comprises the Upper Gallery discovered in 1960 and the New Gallery discovered in 1969.

    In February 2012 it was announced that possibly Neanderthal cave paintings dated in 42,000 years had been discovered in the Caves of Nerja.[1]

     
  33. Admin2

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    13 January 1963 – Coup d'etat in Togo results in assassination of president Sylvanus Olympio

    1963 Togolese coup d'état

    The 1963 Togolese coup d'état was a military coup that occurred in the West African country of Togo on 13 January 1963. The coup leaders — notably Emmanuel Bodjollé, Étienne Eyadéma (later Gnassingbé Eyadéma) and Kléber Dadjo — took over government buildings, arrested most of the cabinet, and assassinated Togo's first president, Sylvanus Olympio, outside the American embassy in Lomé. The coup leaders quickly brought Nicolas Grunitzky and Antoine Meatchi, both of whom were exiled political opponents of Olympio, together to form a new government.

    While the government of Ghana and its president Kwame Nkrumah were implicated in the coup and assassination of Olympio, the investigation was never completed, and the international outcry eventually died down. The event was important as the first coup d'état in the French and British colonies of Africa that achieved independence in the 1950s and 1960s,[1] and Olympio is remembered as one of the first heads of state to be assassinated during a military coup in Africa.[2]

    1. ^ Howe 2000, p. 44.
    2. ^ Mazuri 1968, p. 57.
     
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    14 January 1724 – King Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne.

    Philip V of Spain

    Philip V (Spanish: Felipe; 19 December 1683 – 9 July 1746) was King of Spain from 1 November 1700 to 14 January 1724 and again from 6 September 1724 to his death in 1746. His total reign (45 years and 16 days) is the longest in the history of the Spanish monarchy, surpassing Philip II. Philip V instigated many important reforms in Spain, most especially the centralization of power of the monarchy and the suppression of regional privileges, via the Nueva Planta decrees, and restructuring of the administration of the Spanish Empire on the Iberian Peninsula and its overseas regions.[1]

    Philip was born into the French royal family (as Philippe, Duke of Anjou) during the reign of his grandfather Louis XIV. He was the second son of Louis, Grand Dauphin, and was third in line to the French throne after his father and his elder brother, Louis, Duke of Burgundy. Philip was not expected to become a monarch, but his great-uncle Charles II of Spain was childless. Philip's father had a strong claim to the Spanish throne, but since Philip's father and elder brother were expected to inherit the French throne, Charles named Philip as his heir presumptive in his will. Philip succeeded in 1700 as the first Spanish monarch of the House of Bourbon.

    In 1701, the new king married his second cousin Maria Luisa of Savoy, with whom he had four sons. Their two surviving sons were the future Spanish kings Louis I and Ferdinand VI. Maria Luisa died in 1714, and Philip remarried to Elisabeth Farnese. Philip and Elisabeth had seven children, of whom the eldest was the future Charles III of Spain. It was well known that the union of France and Spain under one monarch would upset the balance of power in Europe, and that other European powers would take steps to prevent it. Philip's accession in Spain provoked the 13-year War of the Spanish Succession, which continued until the Treaty of Utrecht forbade any future possibility of unifying the French and Spanish crowns while confirming his accession to the throne of Spain. It also removed the Spanish Netherlands and Spanish-controlled territories in Italy from the Spanish monarchy. In 1724, Philip abdicated in favor of his son Louis. The new king died later that year, and Philip took the throne again. As a result of his depression, Queen Elisabeth held control over the Spanish government. When Philip died in 1746, he was succeeded by his son Ferdinand.

    Phillip's reign has been generally criticized by historians, though some praise is occasionally offered for his reforms. Historian Stanley G. Payne wrote that "Felipe V was a neurotic, vacillating ruler, concerned with outward decorum and brave only in battle. He had little sense of Spanish interests and needs."[2]

    1. ^ Payne 1973, pp. 351–355.
    2. ^ Payne 1973, p. 358.
     
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    15 January 1889 – The Coca-Cola Company, then known as the Pemberton Medicine Company, is incorporated in Atlanta, Georgia.

    The Coca-Cola Company

    The Coca-Cola Company is an American multinational corporation founded in 1892. It produces Coca-Cola. The drink industry company also manufactures, sells, and markets other non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups, and alcoholic beverages. The company's stock is listed on the NYSE and is part of the DJIA and the S&P 500 and S&P 100 indexes.

    The soft drink was developed in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton. At the time it was introduced, the product contained cocaine from coca leaves and caffeine from kola nuts which together acted as a stimulant. The coca and the kola are the source of the product name, and led to Coca-Cola's promotion as a "healthy tonic". Pemberton had been severely wounded in the American Civil War, and had become addicted to the pain medication morphine. He developed the beverage as a patent medicine in an effort to control his addiction.

    In 1889, the formula and brand were sold for $2,300 (roughly $71,000 in 2022) to Asa Griggs Candler, who incorporated the Coca-Cola Company in Atlanta in 1892. The company has operated a franchised distribution system since 1889.[3] The company largely produces syrup concentrate, which is then sold to various bottlers throughout the world who hold exclusive territories. The company owns its anchor bottler in North America, Coca-Cola Refreshments.[4]

    1. ^ "2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 20, 2024. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
    2. ^ "2023 Proxy Statement". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. March 10, 2023. Retrieved October 19, 2023.
    3. ^ "The Story of Coca-Cola: A Successful Franchising Strategy". Prestige Franchising Limited. April 27, 2017. Retrieved November 30, 2020.
    4. ^ Merced, Michael J. de la (February 25, 2010). "Coke Acquires North American Unit of Bottler (Published 2010)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 30, 2020.
     
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    16 January 1979 – The last Iranian Shah flees Iran with his family for good and relocates to Egypt.

    Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

    Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Persian: محمدرضا پهلوی [mohæmˈmæd reˈzɒː pæhlæˈviː] ; 26 October 1919 – 27 July 1980), commonly referred to in the Western world as Mohammad Reza Shah (محمدرضا شاه), or just simply The Shah, was the last monarch of Iran. He began ruling the Imperial State of Iran after succeeding his father Reza Shah in 1941 and remained in power until he was overthrown by the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which abolished the country's monarchy and established the Islamic Republic of Iran. In 1967, he took up the title Shahanshah (lit.'King of Kings')[1] and held several others, including Aryamehr (lit.'Light of the Aryans') and Bozorg Arteshtaran (lit.'Commander-in-Chief').

    He was the second and last monarch of the Pahlavi dynasty to rule within Iran. His dream of what he referred to as a "Great Civilization" (تمدن بزرگ) in Iran led to his assumption of leadership over rapid levels of industrial and military modernization as well as economic and social reforms.[2][3]

    During World War II, the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran forced the abdication of Reza Shah, who was quickly succeeded by Pahlavi. During Pahlavi's reign, the British-owned oil industry was briefly nationalized by the democratically elected prime minister Mohammad Mosaddegh, who had support from Iran's national parliament to do so. However, Mosaddegh was overthrown in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, which was carried out by the Iranian military under the aegis of the United Kingdom and the United States. Subsequently, the Iranian government centralized power under Pahlavi and brought foreign oil companies back into the country's industry through the Consortium Agreement of 1954.[4]

    Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi introduced the White Revolution, a series of economic, social, and political reforms aimed at transforming Iran into a global power and modernizing the nation by nationalizing key industries and land redistribution. The regime implemented many Iranian nationalist policies leading to the establishment of Cyrus the Great, Cyrus Cylinder, and Tomb of Cyrus the Great as popular symbols of Iran. The Shah initiated major investments in infrastructure, subsidies and land grants for peasant populations, profit sharing for industrial workers, construction of nuclear facilities, the nationalization of Iran’s natural resources, and literacy programs which were considered some of the most effective in the world. The Shah also instituted economic policy tariffs and preferential loans to Iranian businesses which sought to create an independent economy for the nation. Manufacturing of cars, appliances, and other goods in Iran increased substantially leading to the creation of a new industrialist class that was considered insulated from threats of foreign competition. By the 1970s, Pahlavi was seen as a master statesman and used his growing power to pass the 1973 Sale and Purchase Agreement. These reforms culminated in decades of sustained economic growth that would make Iran one of the fastest-growing economies among both the developed world and the developing world. During his 37-year-long rule, Iran spent billions of dollars' worth on industry, education, health, and military spending, and enjoyed economic growth rates exceeding the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. Likewise, the Iranian national income rose 423 times over, and the country saw an unprecedented rise in per capita income—which reached the highest level at any point in Iran's history—and high levels of urbanization. By 1977, Pahlavi's focus on defense spending, which he saw as a means to end foreign powers' intervention in the country, had culminated in the Iranian military standing as the world's fifth-strongest armed force.[5]

    As political unrest grew throughout Iran in the late 1970s,[6] Pahlavi's position in the country was made untenable by the Jaleh Square massacre, in which the Iranian military killed and wounded dozens of protesters in Tehran,[7] and the Cinema Rex fire, an arson attack in Abadan that was erroneously blamed on the Iranian intelligence agency SAVAK. The Guadeloupe Conference saw Pahlavi's Western allies state that there was no feasible way to save the Iranian monarchy from being overthrown. Pahlavi ultimately left Iran for exile on 17 January 1979.[8] Although he had told some Western contemporaries that he would rather leave the country than fire on his own people,[9] estimates for the total number of deaths during the Islamic Revolution range from 540 to 2,000 (figures of independent studies) to 60,000 (figures of the Islamic government).[10] After formally abolishing the Iranian monarchy, Muslim cleric Ruhollah Khomeini assumed leadership as the Supreme Leader of Iran. Pahlavi died in exile in Egypt, where he had been granted political asylum by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. Following his death, his son Reza Pahlavi declared himself as the new Shah of Iran in exile.

    1. ^ D. N. MacKenzie. A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. Routledge Curzon, 2005.
    2. ^ Gholami 2016, p. 80.
    3. ^ Alikarami 2018, p. 54.
    4. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (2003). All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 195 f. ISBN 0-471-26517-9.
    5. ^ Cooper 2016, p. 21, 22.
    6. ^ Razipour, Suzanne Maloney and Keian (24 January 2019). "The Iranian revolution—A timeline of events". Brookings. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
    7. ^ Staff, IFP Editorial (7 September 2016). "Iran's Black Friday: Massacre of Thousands in 1978". Iran Front Page. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
    8. ^ Kabalan 2020, p. 113.
    9. ^ Cooper 2016, p. 10, 36.
    10. ^ "Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2019.
     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 January 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands.

    United States Virgin Islands

    The United States Virgin Islands,[note 2] officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a group of Caribbean islands and an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States.[7] The islands are geographically part of the Virgin Islands archipelago and are located in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles.[8]

    The U.S. Virgin Islands consist of the main islands of Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas and 50 other surrounding minor islands and cays.[9] The total land area of the territory is 133.73 square miles (346.36 km2).[7] The territory's capital is Charlotte Amalie on the island of St. Thomas.

    Previously known as the Danish West Indies of the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway (from 1754 to 1814) and the independent Kingdom of Denmark (from 1814 to 1917), they were sold to the United States by Denmark for $25,000,000 in the 1917 Treaty of the Danish West Indies[7] ($571 million in 2022) and have since been an organized, unincorporated United States territory. The U.S. Virgin Islands are organized under the 1954 Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands and have since held five constitutional conventions. As with other territories in the United States, the Virgin Islands elects a delegate who can participate in debates in the House of Representatives but cannot vote.[10]

    Tourism and related categories are the primary economic activities.[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses Data on Demographic, Social, Economic and Housing Characteristics Now Available for the U.S. Virgin Islands". Archived from the original on October 26, 2022. Retrieved October 26, 2022.
    2. ^ "Religions in U S Virgin Islands - PEW-GRF". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on January 7, 2018. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
    3. ^ "2020 Island Areas Censuses: U.S. Virgin Islands". United States Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on January 20, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
    4. ^ Gross Domestic Product Per Capita for U.S. Virgin Islands (Report). May 5, 2017. Archived from the original on May 23, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
    5. ^ "Virgin Islands (U.S.) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on August 10, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2021.
    6. ^ "The Forgotten Isles: A Risk Assessment of the United States' Island Territories, 2008-2020" (PDF). sites.tufts.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 4, 2021. Retrieved December 20, 2022.
    7. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference WorldFactbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ "United States Virgin Islands". Britannica. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved August 6, 2022.
    9. ^ "Virgin Islands". britannica.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
    10. ^ Leibowitz, Arnold H. (1989). Defining status : a comprehensive analysis of United States territorial relations. Dordrecht: Nijhoff. ISBN 0-7923-0069-6. OCLC 18779202.
     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 January 1943 – Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: The first uprising of Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto.

    Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

    The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (Yiddish: אױפֿשטאַנד אין װאַרשעװער געטאָ, romanizedUfshtand in Varshever Geto; Polish: powstanie w getcie warszawskim; German: Aufstand im Warschauer Ghetto) was the 1943 act of Jewish resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland during World War II to oppose Nazi Germany's final effort to transport the remaining ghetto population to the gas chambers of the Majdanek and Treblinka extermination camps.

    After the Grossaktion Warsaw of summer 1942, in which more than a quarter of a million Jews were deported from the ghetto to Treblinka and murdered, the remaining Jews began to build bunkers and smuggle weapons and explosives into the ghetto. The left-wing Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB) and right-wing Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) formed and began to train. A small resistance effort to another roundup in January 1943 was partially successful and spurred Polish resistance groups to support the Jews in earnest.

    The uprising started on 19 April when the ghetto refused to surrender to the police commander SS-Brigadeführer Jürgen Stroop, who ordered the destruction of the ghetto, block by block, ending on 16 May. A total of 13,000 Jews were killed, about half of them burnt alive or suffocated. Stroop reported 110 German casualties, including 17 killed.[4]

    The uprising was the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II. The Jews knew that victory was impossible and survival unlikely. Marek Edelman, the last surviving ŻOB commander who died in 2009, said their inspiration to fight was "not to allow the Germans alone to pick the time and place of our deaths". According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the uprising was "one of the most significant occurrences in the history of the Jewish people".[6]

    1. ^ Marian Apfelbaum (2007). Two Flags: Return to the Warsaw Ghetto. Gefen Publishing House Ltd. p. 15. ISBN 978-965-229-356-5.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Guttman 2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Maciej Kledzik (18 April 2008). "Zapomniani żołnierze ŻZW". Rzeczpospolita (in Polish). Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
    4. ^ a b Stroop (2009), pp. 25–30.
    5. ^ McDonough, Frank: The Hitler Years, Volume 2: Disaster 1940–1945, p. 396
    6. ^ Freilich, Miri; Dean, Martin (2012). "Warsaw". In Geoffrey P., Megargee; Dean, Martin; Hecker, Mel (eds.). Ghettos in German-Occupied Eastern Europe. Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945. Vol. 2. Translated by Fishman, Samuel. Bloomington: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. p. 459. ISBN 978-0-253-00202-0.
     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 January 2006 – The New Horizons probe is launched by NASA on the first mission to Pluto.

    New Horizons

    New Horizons before launch

    New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe launched as a part of NASA's New Frontiers program.[5] Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), with a team led by Alan Stern,[6] the spacecraft was launched in 2006 with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in 2015, and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) in the decade to follow, which became a mission to 486958 Arrokoth. It is the fifth space probe to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System.

    On January 19, 2006, New Horizons was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station by an Atlas V rocket directly into an Earth-and-solar escape trajectory with a speed of about 16.26 km/s (10.10 mi/s; 58,500 km/h; 36,400 mph). It was the fastest (average speed with respect to Earth) human-made object ever launched from Earth.[7][8][9][10] It is not the fastest speed recorded for a spacecraft, which, as of 2023, is that of the Parker Solar Probe. After a brief encounter with asteroid 132524 APL, New Horizons proceeded to Jupiter, making its closest approach on February 28, 2007, at a distance of 2.3 million kilometers (1.4 million miles). The Jupiter flyby provided a gravity assist that increased New Horizons' speed; the flyby also enabled a general test of New Horizons' scientific capabilities, returning data about the planet's atmosphere, moons, and magnetosphere.

    Most of the post-Jupiter voyage was spent in hibernation mode to preserve onboard systems, except for brief annual checkouts.[11] On December 6, 2014, New Horizons was brought back online for the Pluto encounter, and instrument check-out began.[12] On January 15, 2015, the spacecraft began its approach phase to Pluto.

    On July 14, 2015, at 11:49 UTC, it flew 12,500 km (7,800 mi) above the surface of Pluto,[13][14] which at the time was 34 AU from the Sun,[15] making it the first spacecraft to explore the dwarf planet.[16] In August 2016, New Horizons was reported to have traveled at speeds of more than 84,000 km/h (52,000 mph).[17] On October 25, 2016, at 21:48 UTC, the last recorded data from the Pluto flyby was received from New Horizons.[18] Having completed its flyby of Pluto,[19] New Horizons then maneuvered for a flyby of Kuiper belt object 486958 Arrokoth (then nicknamed Ultima Thule),[20][21][22] which occurred on January 1, 2019,[23][24] when it was 43.4 AU (6.49 billion km; 4.03 billion mi) from the Sun.[20][21] In August 2018, NASA cited results by Alice on New Horizons to confirm the existence of a "hydrogen wall" at the outer edges of the Solar System. This "wall" was first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft.[25][26] NASA has announced it is to extend operations for New Horizons until the spacecraft exits the Kuiper Belt, which is expected to occur between 2028 and 2029.[27]

    1. ^ "New Horizons". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
    2. ^ a b Cleary, Mark C. (August 2010). Evolved Expendable Launch Operations at Cape Canaveral, 2002–2009 (PDF) (Report). Air Force Space & Missile Museum. p. 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 3, 2020. Retrieved January 3, 2020. {{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
    3. ^ "Atlas Launch Archives". International Launch Services. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved April 21, 2018.
    4. ^ "HORIZONS Web-Interface". NASA/JPL. Archived from the original on October 7, 2012. Retrieved July 25, 2016. To find results, change Target Body to "New Horizons", Center to "@Sun", and Time Span to include "2017-01-01".
    5. ^ Chang, Kenneth (July 18, 2015). "The Long, Strange Trip to Pluto, and How NASA Nearly Missed It". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 20, 2019. Retrieved July 19, 2015.
    6. ^ Leo Laporte (August 31, 2015). "Alan Stern: principal investigator for New Horizons". TWiT.tv (Podcast). Retrieved September 1, 2015.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference APL-20070116 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference sciam20130225 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference ionine20150609 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Whitwam, Ryan (December 13, 2017). "New Horizons Space Probe Target May Have its Own Tiny Moonlet – ExtremeTech". Ziff Davis. Retrieved January 24, 2019.
    11. ^ "New Horizons: NASA's Mission to Pluto". NASA. Retrieved April 15, 2015.
    12. ^ "New Horizons – News". Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. December 6, 2014. Retrieved April 15, 2015.
    13. ^ Chang, Kenneth (July 14, 2015). "NASA's New Horizons Spacecraft Completes Flyby of Pluto". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 18, 2018. Retrieved July 14, 2015.
    14. ^ Dunn, Marcia (July 14, 2015). "Pluto close-up: Spacecraft makes flyby of icy, mystery world". Excite. Associated Press (AP). Archived from the original on July 16, 2015. Retrieved July 14, 2015.
    15. ^ "New Horizons". NASA. Retrieved March 10, 2023.
    16. ^ Brown, Dwayne; Cantillo, Laurie; Buckley, Mike; Stotoff, Maria (July 14, 2015). "15-149 NASA's Three-Billion-Mile Journey to Pluto Reaches Historic Encounter". NASA. Archived from the original on June 17, 2019. Retrieved July 14, 2015.
    17. ^ Cofield, Calia (August 24, 2016). "How We Could Visit the Possibly Earth-Like Planet Proxima b". Space.com. Retrieved October 1, 2019.
    18. ^ Chang, Kenneth (October 28, 2016). "No More Data From Pluto". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 29, 2019. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
    19. ^ Jayawardhana, Ray (December 11, 2015). "Give It Up for Pluto". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 10, 2018. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
    20. ^ a b Talbert, Tricia (August 28, 2015). "NASA's New Horizons Team Selects Potential Kuiper Belt Flyby Target". NASA. Archived from the original on September 26, 2015. Retrieved September 4, 2015.
    21. ^ a b Cofield, Calla (August 28, 2015). "Beyond Pluto: 2nd Target Chosen for New Horizons Probe". Space.com. Archived from the original on July 12, 2019. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
    22. ^ Dunn, Marcia (October 22, 2015). "NASA's New Horizons on new post-Pluto mission". Associated Press. Archived from the original on October 28, 2015. Retrieved October 25, 2015.
    23. ^ Corum, Jomathan (February 10, 2019). "New Horizons Glimpses the Flattened Shape of Ultima Thule – NASA's New Horizons spacecraft flew past the most distant object ever visited: a tiny fragment of the early solar system known as 2014 MU69 and nicknamed Ultima Thule. – Interactive". The New York Times. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
    24. ^ Chang, Kenneth (December 31, 2018). "New Horizons Spacecraft Completes Flyby of Ultima Thule, the Most Distant Object Ever Visited". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 19, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
    25. ^ Gladstone, G. Randall; et al. (August 7, 2018). "The Lyman-α Sky Background as Observed by New Horizons". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (16): 8022. arXiv:1808.00400. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.8022G. doi:10.1029/2018GL078808. S2CID 119395450.
    26. ^ Letzter, Rafi (August 9, 2018). "NASA Spotted a Vast, Glowing 'Hydrogen Wall' at the Edge of Our Solar System". Live Science. Archived from the original on April 13, 2020. Retrieved August 10, 2018.
    27. ^ O'Callaghan, Jonathan. "Beyond Pluto, New Horizons Gets a Reprieve from NASA". Scientific American. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 January 1959 – The first flight of the Vickers Vanguard.

    Vickers Vanguard

    The Vickers Vanguard was a short/medium-range turboprop airliner designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Vickers-Armstrongs.

    The Vanguard was developed during the mid-to-late 1950s in response to a specification issued by British European Airways (BEA) for a 100 seat airliner; Vickers decided to design such an airliner as a follow-up to the existing Viscount series, the principal difference from which being an expanded airframe that provided considerably more internal volume. Another key innovation was the Tyne engine, which was roughly twice as powerful as the Viscount's Rolls-Royce Dart engine, and allowed for increases in both cruising speed and altitude. Throughout the design process, the needs of two airlines, BEA and Trans-Canada Air Lines (TCA), heavily shaped the Vanguard's specifics.

    The Vanguard was brought into revenue service on 17 December 1960, around the same time as the commercial availability of a new generation of jet-powered airliners; as a result, these competitors quickly overshadowed its performance and led to the type being largely ignored by the market. Only 44 aircraft were ever built, the type having been ordered by BEA and TCA. After only about ten years' service, TCA experimentally converted one of its Vanguards to a freighter configuration, calling it the Cargoliner. Considered to be a success, the majority of Vanguards were converted into freighters during the early 1970s, those from BEA becoming the Merchantman. As a freighter, the type remained in service for many years, the final example being retired in 1996.

     

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