This day in .....

11 April 1976 – The Apple I is created.

Apple I

First computer model built by Apple

This article is about the early microcomputer. For the streaming service, see Apple One. For Apple's use of the i- prefix, see Internet-related prefixes § "i-". For other uses, see Apple 1 (disambiguation).

The Apple Computer 1 (Apple-1^[a]), later known predominantly as the Apple I (written with a Roman numeral),^[b] is an 8-bit motherboard-only personal computer designed by Steve Wozniak^[5][6] and released by the Apple Computer Company (now Apple Inc.) in 1976. The company was initially formed to sell the Apple I – its first product – and would later become the world's largest technology company.^[7] The idea of starting a company and selling the computer came from Wozniak's friend and Apple co-founder Steve Jobs.^[8][9] One of the main innovations of the Apple I was that it included video display terminal circuitry and a keyboard interface on a single board, allowing it to connect to a low-cost composite video monitor instead of an expensive computer terminal, compared to most existing computers at the time. Contrary to popular belief, it was not the first personal computer to include such video output, predated by machines such as the Sol-20 and add-in cards such as the VDM-1.

To finance the Apple I's development, Wozniak and Jobs sold some of their possessions for a few hundred dollars.^[10] Wozniak demonstrated the first prototype in July 1976 at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, California, impressing an early computer retailer.^[11] After securing an order for 50 computers, Jobs was able to order the parts on credit and deliver the first Apple products after ten days.^[12]

The Apple I was one of the first computers available that used the inexpensive MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. An expansion included a BASIC interpreter, allowing users to utilize BASIC at home instead of at institutions with mainframe computers, greatly lowering the entry cost for computing with BASIC.

Production was discontinued on September 30, 1977, after the June 10, 1977 introduction of its successor, the Apple II, which Byte magazine referred to as part of the "1977 Trinity" of personal computing (along with the PET 2001 from Commodore Business Machines and the TRS-80 Model I from Tandy Corporation).^[13] As relatively few computers were made before they were discontinued, coupled with their status as Apple's first product, surviving Apple I units are now displayed in computer museums.^[14]

1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
2. ^ ^{a b c} "Apple-1 Operation Manual" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 11, 2018. Retrieved May 10, 2018 – via Apple Fritter.
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference 1977 price list was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Datasheet Archive 2513 datasheet download". Archived from the original on June 17, 2022. Retrieved April 22, 2022.
5. ^ "Co-founder tells his side of Apple story". Reuters. September 27, 2006. Archived from the original on October 22, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
6. ^ "A Chat with Computing Pioneer Steve Wozniak". NPR.org. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
7. ^ Chen, Liyan (May 11, 2015). "The World's Largest Tech Companies: Apple Beats Samsung, Microsoft, Google". Forbes. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
8. ^ Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0: The Definitive History of the World's Most Colorful Company. No Starch Press. p. 5. ISBN 9781593270100.
9. ^ O'Grady, Jason D. (2009). Apple Inc. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN 9780313362446.
10. ^ "Ventura County Star". Ventura County Star. Archived from the original on October 6, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
11. ^ Freiberger, Paul; Swaine, Michael (2000). Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. pp. 265–267. ISBN 0-07-135892-7. At a Homebrew meeting in July 1976, Woz gave a demonstration of the Apple 1. Paul Terrell, one of the industries earliest retailers, was in attendance.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference wozniak-smith was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ "Most Important Companies". Byte. September 1995. Archived from the original on June 18, 2008. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference ford was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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12 April 1980 – Terry Fox begins his "Marathon of Hope" at St. John's, Newfoundland.

Terry Fox

Canadian athlete (1958–1981)

This article is about the Canadian athlete. For other uses, see Terry Fox (disambiguation).

Terrance Stanley Fox CC OD (July 28, 1958 – June 28, 1981) was a Canadian athlete, humanitarian, and cancer research activist. In 1980, with one leg having been amputated due to cancer, he embarked on an east-to-west cross-Canada run to raise money and awareness for cancer research. Although the spread of his cancer eventually forced him to end his quest after 143 days and 5,373 kilometres (3,339 mi), and ultimately cost him his life, his efforts resulted in a lasting, worldwide legacy. The annual Terry Fox Run, first held in 1981, has grown to involve millions of participants in over 60 countries and is now the world's largest one-day fundraiser for cancer research; over C$850 million has been raised in his name as of September 2022.^[1]

Fox was a distance runner and basketball player for his Port Coquitlam high school, now named after him, and Simon Fraser University. His right leg was amputated in 1977 after he was diagnosed with osteosarcoma, though he continued to run using an artificial leg. He also played wheelchair basketball in Vancouver, winning three national championships.

In 1980, he began the Marathon of Hope, a cross-country run to raise money for cancer research. He hoped to raise one dollar from each of Canada's 24 million people. He began with little fanfare from St John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, in April and ran the equivalent of a full marathon every day. Fox had become a national star by the time he reached Ontario; he made numerous public appearances with businessmen, athletes, and politicians in his efforts to raise money. He was forced to end his run outside Thunder Bay when the cancer spread to his lungs. His hopes of overcoming the disease and completing his run ended when he died nine months later.

Fox was the youngest person named a Companion of the Order of Canada and won the 1980 Lou Marsh Award as the nation's top sportsman. He was named Canada's Newsmaker of the Year in both 1980 and 1981 by The Canadian Press. Considered a national hero, he has had many buildings, statues, roads, and parks named in his honour across the country.

1. ^ "The Terry Fox Foundation asks Canadians to Join us for our "biggest try ever" for Cancer Research". The Terry Fox Foundation. April 12, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2022.

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21 April 1970 – The Hutt River Province Principality secedes from Australia.

Principality of Hutt River

Micronation in Australia, 1970–2020

The Principality of Hutt River, often referred to by its former name, the Hutt River Province, was an unrecognized micronation in Australia, proclaimed on 21 April 1970 when farmer Leonard Casley declared his farm to be a sovereign state, the "Hutt River Province". He claimed to have seceded from Australia, which occurred during his dispute with the authorities concerning wheat production quotas. A few years later, Casley began styling himself as "Prince Leonard" and granting family members royal titles, although he did not include the word "principality" in the official name until 2006. In 2017, Casley's claim to rulership was taken over by his son Graeme,^[3][4][5] who dropped the claim to sovereignty on 3 August 2020.^[6][7]

The claimed territory was located 517 km (354 mi) north of Perth, near the town of Northampton in the state of Western Australia. It had an area of 75 square kilometres (29 sq mi), making it larger than several recognized countries. It was not recognised as a country by the Australian Government nor any other national government, and the High Court of Australia and Supreme Court of Western Australia rejected submissions arguing that it was not subject to Australian laws.^[8]

The "principality" was a regional tourist attraction until it announced it was closed to tourists after 31 January 2020.^[9][10] It issued its own currency, stamps and passports (which are not recognised by the Australian government or any other government).^[11]

Leonard Casley died on 13 February 2019.^[12][13]

1. ^ "Constitution" (PDF).
2. ^ Casley, Leonard (21 April 1970). "The Fate [sic] Accompli" (PDF). Principality of Hutt River. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
3. ^ Sarah Taillier (1 February 2017). "Prince Leonard of Hutt River Principality abdicates to son Graeme". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 23 March 2021.
4. ^ "Australian micronation 'prince' abdicates after 46 years". BBC News. 15 February 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
5. ^ Sarah Taillier; Sebastian Neuweiler (11 February 2017). "Hutt River Principality now ruled by Prince Graeme as Prince Leonard stands aside". ABC News. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
6. ^ "Principality of Hutt River to close its borders!". 27 December 2019.
7. ^ Hedley, Kate (3 August 2020). "End of an empire: Hutt River to rejoin Australia after 50 years". WA Today. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
8. ^ Casley v Commissioner of Taxation [2007] HCATrans 590; Casley v Deputy Commissioner of Taxation [2017] WASCA 196, [8].
9. ^ Pascual Juanola, Marta (10 January 2020). "Hutt River Principality will close its doors 'until further notice' due to financial hardship". WAtoday. Retrieved 21 February 2020.
10. ^ Ministry of Electronic Communications, Principality of Hutt River (1 April 2020). "Official Home Site of the Principality of Hutt River". Retrieved 21 March 2021.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference MacBeth was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Francesca Mann (13 February 2019). "Hutt River micro-nation founder Prince Leonard dead aged 93". PerthNow. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
13. ^ Natasha Harradine (13 February 2019). "Prince Leonard, who founded Hutt River Province after stoush with WA government, dies aged 93". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 13 February 2019.

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22 April 1906 – The 1906 Summer Olympics, not now recognized as part of the official Olympic Games, open in Athens.

1906 Intercalated Games

International multi-sport event in Greece

The 1906 Intercalated Games or 1906 Olympic Games (Greek: Μεσολυμπιάδα, romanized: Mesolympiada, lit. 'Mesolympics') was an international multi-sport event that was celebrated in Athens, Greece.^[1] They were at the time considered to be Olympic Games and were referred to as the "Second International Olympic Games in Athens" by the International Olympic Committee.^[2] However, the medals that were distributed to the participants during these games are not officially recognised by the Olympic Committee^[3] and are not displayed with the collection of Olympic medals at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland.

1. ^ "1906 Athina Summer Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 17 April 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
2. ^ Journal of Olympic History, Volume 10, December 2001/January 2002, The 2nd International Olympic Games in Athens 1906, by Karl Lennartz Archived 15 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ What Events are Olympic? Olympics at SportsReference.com. Accessed 7 Sep 2008.

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23 April 1935 – The Polish Constitution of 1935 is adopted.

April Constitution of Poland

2nd constitution of the Second Polish Republic, adopted in 1935

The April Constitution of Poland (Polish: Ustawa konstytucyjna 23 IV 1935 or Konstytucja kwietniowa) was the general law passed by the act of the Polish Sejm on 23 April 1935. It introduced in the Second Polish Republic a presidential system with certain elements of authoritarianism.

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24 April 1953 – Winston Churchill is knighted by Queen Elizabeth II.

Winston Churchill

British statesman and writer (1874–1965)

"Churchill" redirects here. For other uses, see Churchill (disambiguation) and Winston Churchill (disambiguation).

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill^[a] (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, soldier, and writer who twice served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, from 1940 to 1945 during the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. Apart from two years between 1922 and 1924, he was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1964 and represented a total of five constituencies. Ideologically an adherent to economic liberalism and imperialism, he was for most of his career a member of the Conservative Party, which he led from 1940 to 1955. He was a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 to 1924.

Of mixed English and American parentage, Churchill was born in Oxfordshire into the wealthy, aristocratic Spencer family. He joined the British Army in 1895 and saw action in British India, the Mahdist War (also known as the Anglo-Sudan War), and the Second Boer War, later gaining fame as a war correspondent and writing books about his campaigns. Elected a Conservative MP in 1900, he defected to the Liberals in 1904. In H. H. Asquith's Liberal government, Churchill served as President of the Board of Trade and Home Secretary, championing prison reform and workers' social security. As First Lord of the Admiralty during the First World War, he oversaw the Gallipoli campaign, but after it proved a disaster, he was demoted to Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He resigned in November 1915 and joined the Royal Scots Fusiliers on the Western Front for six months. In 1917, he returned to government under David Lloyd George and served successively as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, and Secretary of State for the Colonies, overseeing the Anglo-Irish Treaty and British foreign policy in the Middle East. After two years out of Parliament, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Stanley Baldwin's Conservative government, returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure and depressing the UK economy.

Out of government during his so-called "wilderness years" in the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in calling for British rearmament to counter the growing threat of militarism in Nazi Germany. At the outbreak of the Second World War he was re-appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. In May 1940, he became prime minister, succeeding Neville Chamberlain. Churchill formed a national government and oversaw British involvement in the Allied war effort against the Axis powers, resulting in victory in 1945. After the Conservatives' defeat in the 1945 general election, he became Leader of the Opposition. Amid the developing Cold War with the Soviet Union, he publicly warned of an "iron curtain" of Soviet influence in Europe and promoted European unity. Between his terms as prime minister, he wrote several books recounting his experience during the war. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. He lost the 1950 election but was returned to office in 1951. His second term was preoccupied with foreign affairs, especially Anglo-American relations and preservation of what remained of the British Empire with India now no longer part of it. Domestically, his government emphasised housebuilding and completed the development of a nuclear weapon (begun by his predecessor). In declining health, Churchill resigned as prime minister in 1955, remaining an MP until 1964. Upon his death in 1965, he was given a state funeral.

One of the 20th century's most significant figures, Churchill remains popular in the UK and the rest of the Anglosphere where he is generally viewed as a victorious wartime leader who played an important role in defending liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. While he has been criticised for his views on race and empire alongside some of his wartime decisions, historians often rank Churchill as the greatest prime minister in British history.

1. ^ Price 2009, p. 12.

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25 April The Battle of Gallipoli begins—The invasion of the Turkish Gallipoli Peninsula by Australian, British, French and New Zealand troops begins with landings at Anzac Cove and Cape Helles.

Gallipoli Campaign

Redirect to:

• Gallipoli campaign

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26 April 1943 – The Easter Riots break out in Uppsala, Sweden.

Easter Riots

For the riots during Easter in Sweden in 2022, see 2022 Sweden riots.

For the riots in Quebec during the 1917 Conscription Crisis, see Quebec Easter riots.

1943 clashes between Nazis and anti-fascists in Sweden

The Easter Riots (Swedish: Påskkravallerna) is the name given to a period of unrest in Uppsala, Sweden, during the Easter of 1943. The National Socialist group Swedish Socialist Union (SSS, Swedish: Svensk Socialistisk Samling, previously the National Socialist Workers' Party) held its national congress in Uppsala, amid the Second World War and only days after events like the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. The unrest climaxed on 26 April, when the SSS – who after initially belonging to a Strasserist wing of National Socialism began adopting a more indigenous form of fascism in 1938, and included Ingvar Kamprad among its early members – ended the congress by holding a demonstration at the Royal Mounds of Old Uppsala.^[1][2]

Thousands of anti-fascists gathered to protest against the Nazi gathering at the Royal Mounds, a historical site that held much political symbolism among Swedish nationalists. Policemen had been called in from Stockholm to defend the demonstration, and after the situation became increasingly tense they resorted to violence, dispersing the peacefully protesting crowds and onlookers alike with heavy force.^[3]

In addition to writing a book about it, the historian and playwright Magnus Alkarp has depicted the riots in a play, 4 dagar i april. The play, produced by the Uppsala City Theatre and directed by Sara Cronberg, was put on in 2012.^[4] Alkarp received death threats from the Swedish Resistance Movement, a militant neo-Nazi group, after the play's premier.^[5]

1. ^ Andersson, Peter (23 August 2011). "Kamprad var djupt inblandad i nazistisk rörelse" (in Swedish). Sveriges Radio. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
2. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (2001). A History of Fascism 1914-1945. London: Routledge. p. 306.
3. ^ Alkarp, Magnus (2013). Fyra dagar i april: Påskkravallerna i Uppsala 1943 (in Swedish). Historiska Media. ISBN 9789186297725.^{[page needed]}
4. ^ Harrison, Dick (16 May 2013). "När demonstranter möttes av polisens sabelattack". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). Retrieved 20 September 2014.
5. ^ Vergara, Daniel (24 February 2012). "Dödshot mot pjäsförfattare". Expo (in Swedish). Retrieved 20 September 2014.

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27 April 1578 – Duel of the Mignons claims the lives of two favourites of Henry III of France and two favorites of Henry I, Duke of Guise.

Les Mignons

Term for favourites of Henry III of France

Les Mignons (from mignon, French for "the darlings" or "the dainty ones") was a term used by polemicists in the contentious atmosphere of the French Wars of Religion and taken up by the people of Paris, to designate the favourites of Henry III of France, from his return from Poland to reign in France in 1574, to his assassination in 1589, a disastrous end to which the perception of effeminate weakness contributed.^[1] The mignons were frivolous and fashionable young men, to whom public malignity attributed heterodox sexuality, rumors that some historians have found to be a factor in the disintegration of the late Valois monarchy.

1. ^ Katherine B. Crawford, "Love, Sodomy, and Scandal: Controlling the Sexual Reputation of Henry III", Journal of the History of Sexuality 12.4 (October 2003:513–542.

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28 April 1996 – Whitewater controversy: President Bill Clinton gives a 4½ hour videotaped testimony for the defense.

[Whitewater_controversy/wiki]

 

29 April 1945 – World War II: Start of Operation Manna.

Operations Manna and Chowhound

1945 humanitarian food drops over the German-occupied Netherlands by the Allies

Operation Manna and Operation Chowhound were humanitarian food drops to relieve the Dutch famine of 1944–45 in the German-occupied Netherlands undertaken by Allied bomber crews during the last days of the war in Europe. Manna (29 April – 7 May 1945), which dropped 7,000 tonnes of food into the still Nazi-occupied western part of the Netherlands, was carried out by British Royal Air Force (RAF) units and squadrons from the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) and Polish Air Force squadrons in the RAF. Chowhound (1–8 May 1945) dropped 4,000 tonnes and was undertaken by the United States Army Air Forces. In total, over 11,000 tonnes of food were dropped over one and a half weeks with the acquiescence of the occupying German forces to help feed Dutch civilians in danger of starvation.^[1]

After it was realised that Manna and Chowhound would be insufficient, a ground-based relief operation named Operation Faust was launched. On 2 May, 200 Allied trucks began delivering food to the city of Rhenen, behind German lines.

1. ^ "Arthur Seyss-Inquart". History Learning Site. Retrieved 6 January 2014.

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30 April 1939 – The 1939-40 New York World's Fair open

1939 New York World's Fair

World's fair held in New York City

The 1939–1940 New York World's Fair was a world's fair held at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, New York City, United States. It was the second-most expensive American world's fair of all time, exceeded only by St. Louis's Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904. Many countries around the world participated in it, and over 44 million people attended its exhibits in two seasons.^[2] It was the first exposition to be based on the future, with an opening slogan of "Dawn of a New Day", and it allowed all visitors to take a look at "the world of tomorrow".

When World War II began four months into the 1939 World's Fair, many exhibits were affected, especially those on display in the pavilions of countries under Axis occupation. After the close of the fair in 1940, many exhibits were demolished or removed, though some buildings were retained for the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair, held at the same site.

1. ^ "1939 New York World's Fair". www.1939nyworldsfair.com. Archived from the original on March 23, 2019. Retrieved January 10, 2011.
2. ^ Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, p. 58, Random House, New York, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4000-6964-4.

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1 May 1940 – The 1940 Summer Olympics are cancelled due to war.

1940 Summer Olympics

Canceled multi-sport event

The 1940 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XII Olympiad, was a planned international multi-sport event scheduled to have been held from September 21 to October 6, 1940 in Tokyo City, Empire of Japan, and later rescheduled for July 20 to August 4, 1940 in Helsinki, Finland following the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. They were ultimately cancelled because of World War II alongside the 1940 Winter Olympics in Sapporo, Empire of Japan, and were the third games to be canceled due to war.

Helsinki would eventually host the 1952 Summer Olympics. Tokyo would also later host the 1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics, the latter being postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

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2 May 1611 – The King James Bible is published for the first time in London, England, by printer Robert Barker.

King James Version

1611 English translation of the Bible

"KJB" redirects here. For other uses, see KJB (disambiguation) and King James Version (disambiguation).

The King James Version (KJV), also the King James Bible (KJB) and the Authorized Version (AV), is an Early Modern English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, which was commissioned in 1604 and published in 1611, by sponsorship of King James VI and I.^[d][e] The 80 books of the King James Version include 39 books of the Old Testament, 14 books of Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament.

Noted for its "majesty of style", the King James Version has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.^[3][4] The King James Version remains the preferred translation of many Christian fundamentalists and religious movements, and it is considered one of the important literary accomplishments of early modern England.

The KJV was the third translation into English approved by the English Church authorities: The first had been the Great Bible (1535), and the second had been the Bishops' Bible (1568).^[5] In Switzerland the first generation of Protestant Reformers had produced the Geneva Bible^[6] which was published in 1560^[7] having referred to the original Hebrew and Greek scriptures, which was influential in the writing of the Authorized King James Version.

The English Church initially used the officially sanctioned "Bishops' Bible", which was hardly used by the population. More popular was the named "Geneva Bible", which was created on the basis of the Tyndale translation in Geneva under the direct successor of the reformer John Calvin for his English followers. However, their footnotes represented a Calvinistic Puritanism that was too radical for James. The translators of the Geneva Bible had translated the word king as tyrant about four hundred times—the word tyrant does not appear once in the KJV. Because of this, it has been assumed King James purposely had the translators of the KJV mistranslate the word tyrant as either "troubling", "oppressor", or some other word to avoid people being critical of his monarchy, though there is no evidence to back up that claim.^[8]

James convened the Hampton Court Conference in January 1604, where a new English version was conceived in response to the problems of the earlier translations perceived by the Puritans,^[9] a faction of the Church of England.^[10] James gave translators instructions intended to ensure the new version would conform to the ecclesiology, and reflect the episcopal structure, of the Church of England and its belief in an ordained clergy.^[11][12] In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings, and as such was authorized by Act of Parliament.^[13]

By the first half of the 18th century, the Authorized Version had become effectively unchallenged as the only English translation used in Anglican and other English Protestant churches, except for the Psalms and some short passages in the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England. Over the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars. With the development of stereotype printing at the beginning of the 19th century, this version of the Bible had become the most widely printed book in history, almost all such printings presenting the standard text of 1769, and nearly always omitting the books of the Apocrypha. Today the unqualified title "King James Version" usually indicates this Oxford standard text.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b} "Bible Translation Spectrum". Logos Bible Software Wiki. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
2. ^ KJV Dedicatorie 1611.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference hunt20110209 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "The King James Bible: The Book That Changed the World – BBC Two". BBC.
5. ^ Daniell 2003, p. 204.
6. ^ The Sixth Point of Calvinism, The Historicism Research Foundation, Inc., 2003, ISBN 09620681-4-4
7. ^ The Holy Bible ... With a General Introduction and Short Explanatory Notes, by B. Boothroyd. James Duncan. 1836.
8. ^ "Is "Tyrant" Missing From The KJV? – BaptistBasics.org". 19 May 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
9. ^ Daniell 2003, p. 435.
10. ^ Hill 1997, pp. 4–5.
11. ^ Daniell 2003, p. 439.
12. ^ Daniell 2003, p. 436.
13. ^ Daniell 2003, p. 488.

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3 May 1837 – The University of Athens is founded in Athens, Greece.

National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

Public university in Zografou, Greece

The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA; Greek: Εθνικό και Καποδιστριακό Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών, Ethnikó kai Kapodistriakó Panepistímio Athinón), usually referred to simply as the University of Athens (UoA), is a public university in Zografou, a suburban town in the Athens agglomeration, Greece.^[1][2][3]

It has been in continuous operation since its establishment in 1837 and is the oldest higher education institution of the modern Greek state and the first contemporary university in both the Balkan Peninsula and the Eastern Mediterranean.^[4] Today it is one of the largest universities by enrollment in Europe, with over 69,000 registered students.^[5]

1. ^ "University of Athens – External Evaluation Report" (PDF). 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-03-07. Retrieved 2022-03-22."The EEC’s assessment is that University of Athens is worthy of merit. Educate faculty in the need for QA and evaluation. The successful process of self-evaluation can be replicated. An impartial, genuine, honest, open, effective and constructive strategic planning and communication between the Institution and the state needs to be implemented in order to put in place measures for its longer term viability and tradition of excellence. We conclude by pointing out that the recommendations indicated in our report are intended as ways to improve an already excellent Institution. The culture of excellence in research and teaching that the Institution has established for itself was appreciated by every member of the EEC."
2. ^ "National and Kapodistrian University of Athens - Internal Evaluation Report 2015" (PDF). modip.uoa.gr. 2015-06-01. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-03-22. Retrieved 2022-03-22.
3. ^ "National and Kapodistrian University of Athens - Internal Evaluation Report 2015" (in Greek). modip.uoa.gr. 2015-06-01. Archived from the original on 2022-03-22. Retrieved 2022-03-22.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "UoA 2019" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2020.

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4 May 1836 – Formation of Ancient Order of Hibernians

Ancient Order of Hibernians

Irish Catholic fraternal organisation primarily active in the USA

The Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH; Irish: Ord Ársa na nÉireannach^[1][2]) is an Irish Catholic fraternal organization. Members must be male, Catholic, and either born in Ireland or of Irish descent. Its largest membership is in the United States, where it was founded in New York City in 1836.

The name was adopted by groups of Irish immigrants in the United States,^[3] its purpose to act as guards to shield Catholic churches from anti-Catholic forces in the mid-19th century, and to assist Irish Catholic immigrants, especially those who faced discrimination or harsh coal mining working conditions.^{[citation needed]} Many members in the coal mining area of Pennsylvania allegedly had a background with the Molly Maguires. It became an important focus of Irish American political activity.^[3]

1. ^ Hurley, John W. (12 December 2018). Shillelagh: The Irish Fighting Stick. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781430325703 – via Google Books.
2. ^ "Libel, Slander, Drinking". Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
3. ^ ^{a b} Miller 1973, pp. 209–215.

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5 May 2010 – Mass protests in Greece erupt in response to austerity measures imposed by the government as a result of the Greek debt crisis.

Anti-austerity movement in Greece

2010–12 civil unrest over the government debt crisis and resulting policies

The anti-austerity movement in Greece involved a series of demonstrations and general strikes that took place across the country. The events, which began on 5 May 2010, were provoked by plans to cut public spending and raise taxes as austerity measures in exchange for a €110 billion bail-out, aimed at solving the Greek government-debt crisis. Three people were killed on 5 May in one of the largest demonstrations in Greece since 1973.

On 25 May 2011 (2011-05-25), anti-austerity activists organised by the Direct Democracy Now! movement, known as the Indignant Citizens Movement (Greek: Κίνημα Αγανακτισμένων Πολιτών, Kínima Aganaktisménon-Politón), started demonstrating in major cities across Greece. This second wave of demonstrations proved different from the years before^[6][7] in that they were not partisan^[8] and began through peaceful means.^[9] Some of the events later turned violent, particularly in the capital city of Athens.^{[10][11][12][13]} Inspired by the anti-austerity protests in Spain, these demonstrations were organised entirely using social networking sites, which earned it the nickname "May of Facebook".^[14] The demonstrations and square sit-ins were officially ended when municipal police removed demonstrators from Thessaloniki's White Tower square on 7 August 2011.^{[citation needed]}

On 29 June 2011, violent clashes occurred between the riot police and activists as the Greek parliament voted to accept the EU's austerity requirements. Incidents of police brutality were reported by international media such as the BBC, The Guardian, CNN iReport and The New York Times, as well as by academic research^[15] and organisations Amnesty International.^{[16][17][18][19][20][21][22]} The Athens Prosecutor agreed to an investigation into accusations of excessive use of tear gas, as well as the alleged use of other expired and carcinogenic chemical substances. As of 2011^[update], the investigation was under way.^[23]

1. ^ "Outraged Greek youth follow Spanish example". euronews.eu. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2011. First the Arab world, then Madrid, now Athens. Outraged Greek youth has taken its lead from the Arab spring and Spanish protests over unemployment.
2. ^ "Greece crisis: Revolution in the offing?". BBC. 19 June 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2011. Inspired by the Arab uprisings, they have dug in to oppose further spending cuts in exchange for a second bail-out by the EU and IMF.
3. ^ Νέα ένταση και κυκλοφοριακό χάος (in Greek). 29 June 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
4. ^ Επεισόδια στο Σύνταγμα 12 Φεβρουαρίου 2012 (in Greek). Retrieved 12 February 2012.
5. ^ "Μάριος Λώλος: Το χτύπημα ήταν δολοφονικό". Retrieved 22 June 2012.
6. ^ Dalakoglou Dimitris (2012). "The Movement and the "Movement" of Syntagma Square". Cultural Anthropology. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
7. ^ Εκπομπή: Ο δρόμος (για την πλατεία) είχε την δική του ιστορία (in Greek). koutipandoras.gr. 13 June 2011. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
8. ^ "Στα χνάρια των Ισπανών αγανακτισμένων (On the footsteps of the Spanish 'indignados')" (in Greek). skai.gr. 26 May 2011. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
9. ^ Αγανακτισμένοι στο Σύνταγμα (in Greek). skai.gr. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
10. ^ "Violent anti-cut riots in Greece spark coalition talks". Metro. UK. 15 June 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
11. ^ "Greece Anxiety Increases: US Stocks Ends Lower on Wednesday Trading « USA Market News". Usamarketnews.com. 16 June 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
12. ^ "Greek PM George Papandreou to unveil new cabinet". BBC. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
13. ^ "Greek riot police, protesters clash during strike – World news – Europe". NBC News. 23 February 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
14. ^ "Ο Μάης του Facebook και με ομπρέλες". ethnos.gr. Archived from the original on 6 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
15. ^ "Beyond Spontaneity". academia.edu. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
16. ^ "Greece passes key austerity vote". BBC. 29 June 2011. Archived from the original on 30 June 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
17. ^ Siddique, Haroon; Batty, David (29 June 2011). "Greece austerity vote and demonstrations – Wednesday 29 June 2011". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
18. ^ Smith, Helena (1 July 2011). "Greek police face investigation after protest violence". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
19. ^ "TEAR GAS FIRED AS GREEK POLICE CLASH WITH ATHENS PROTESTERS". Amnesty International. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
20. ^ "GREECE URGED NOT TO USE EXCESSIVE FORCE DURING PROTESTS". Amnesty International. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
21. ^ "Back when peaceful demonstrations in Greece were massive and meaningful..." CNN. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
22. ^ Donadio, Rachel; Sayare, Scott (29 June 2011). "Violent Clashes in the Streets of Athens". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
23. ^ Παρέμβαση της Εισαγγελίας Πρωτοδικών για τα χημικά στα επεισόδια (in Greek). skai.gr. 30 June 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.

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6 May 1937 – Hindenburg disaster: The German zeppelin Hindenburg catches fire and is destroyed within a minute while attempting to dock at Lakehurst, New Jersey. Thirty-six people are killed.

Hindenburg disaster

1937 airship fire

The Hindenburg disaster was an airship accident that occurred on May 6, 1937, in Manchester Township, New Jersey, U.S. The LZ 129 Hindenburg (Luftschiff Zeppelin #129; Registration: D-LZ 129) was a German commercial passenger-carrying rigid airship, the lead ship of the Hindenburg class, the longest class of flying machine and the largest airship by envelope volume.^[1] It was designed and built by the Zeppelin Company (Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH) and was operated by the German Zeppelin Airline Company (Deutsche Zeppelin-Reederei). It was named after Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, who was president of Germany from 1925 until his death in 1934. Filled with hydrogen, it caught fire and was destroyed during its attempt to dock with its mooring mast at Naval Air Station Lakehurst. The accident caused 35 fatalities (13 passengers and 22 crewmen) from the 97 people on board (36 passengers and 61 crewmen), and an additional fatality on the ground.

The disaster was the subject of newsreel coverage, photographs and Herbert Morrison's recorded radio eyewitness reports from the landing field, which were broadcast the next day.^[2] A variety of theories have been put forward for both the cause of ignition and the initial fuel for the ensuing fire. The publicity shattered public confidence in the giant, passenger-carrying rigid airship and marked the abrupt end of the airship era.^[3]

1. ^ "Hindenburg Statistics." Archived December 2, 2017, at the Wayback Machine airships.net, 2009. Retrieved: July 22, 2017.
2. ^ WLS Broadcast Of the Hindenburg Disaster 1937. Chicagoland Radio and Media Archived February 19, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 7, 2015.
3. ^ Craats 2009, p. 36.

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7 May 1994 – Edvard Munch's iconic painting The Scream is recovered undamaged after being stolen from the National Gallery of Norway in February.

The Scream

1893 painting by Edvard Munch

For other uses, see The Scream (disambiguation).

The Scream is a composition created by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch in 1893. The Norwegian name of the piece is Skrik (Scream), and the German title under which it was first exhibited is Der Schrei der Natur (The Scream of Nature). The agonized face in the painting has become one of the most iconic images in art, seen as symbolizing the anxiety of the human condition. Munch's work, including The Scream, had a formative influence on the Expressionist movement.^[1]

Munch recalled that he had been out for a walk at sunset when suddenly the setting sun's light turned the clouds "a blood red". He sensed an "infinite scream passing through nature". Scholars have located the spot to a fjord overlooking Oslo^[2] and have suggested other explanations for the unnaturally orange sky, ranging from the effects of a volcanic eruption to a psychological reaction by Munch to his sister's commitment at a nearby lunatic asylum.

Munch created two versions in paint and two in pastels, as well as a lithograph stone from which several prints survive. Both painted versions have been stolen, but since recovered. In 2012, one of the pastel versions commanded the at-the-time highest nominal price paid for an artwork at a public auction.

1. ^ Eggum, Arne (1984). Munch, Edvard (ed.). Edvard Munch: Paintings, Sketches, and Studies. New York, NY: C.N. Potter. p. 10. ISBN 0-517-55617-0. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
2. ^ (59°54′02.4″N 10°46′12.9″E / 59.900667°N 10.770250°E / 59.900667; 10.770250)

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8 May 1970 – The Hard Hat Riot occurs in the Wall Street area of New York City as blue-collar construction workers clash with demonstrators protesting the Vietnam War.

Hard Hat Riot

1970 riot in New York, New York, United States

The Hard Hat Riot occurred on May 8, 1970, in New York City. It started around noon when around 400 construction workers and around 800 office workers attacked around 1,000 demonstrators affiliated with the student strike of 1970. The students were protesting the May 4 Kent State shootings and the Vietnam War, following the April 30 announcement by President Richard Nixon of the U.S. invasion of neutral Cambodia. Some construction workers carried U.S. flags and chanted "USA, All the way", and "America, love it or leave it". Anti-war protesters shouted, “Peace now”.

The riot, first breaking out near the intersection of Wall Street and Broad Street in Lower Manhattan, led to a mob scene with more than 20,000 people in the streets, eventually leading to a siege of New York City Hall, an attack on the conservative Pace University, and lasted more than three hours. Around 100 people, including seven policemen, were injured on what became known as "Bloody Friday". Six people were arrested, but only one of them was a construction worker associated with the rioters.^[1][2][3][4] President Nixon then invited the hardhat leaders to Washington, D.C., and accepted a hardhat from them.

1. ^ Kuhn, David Paul (2020). The Hardhat Riot: Nixon, New York City, and the Dawn of the White Working-Class Revolution. Oxford University Press. pp. 141–144, 214, 236. ISBN 978-0190064716.
2. ^ Profile of incident, chnm.gmu.edu; accessed April 23, 2016.
3. ^ [1], The Daily Beast excerpt of The Hardhat Riot; accessed September 11, 2020.
4. ^ [2], The Washington Post book review of The Hardhat Riot; accessed September 11, 2020.

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9 May 1092 – Lincoln Cathedral is consecrated.

Lincoln Cathedral

Church in Lincolnshire, England

Lincoln Cathedral, also called Lincoln Minster and formally the Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln, is a Church of England cathedral in Lincoln, England. It is the seat of the bishop of Lincoln and is the mother church of the diocese of Lincoln. The cathedral is governed by its dean and chapter, and is a grade I listed building.

The earliest parts of the current building date to 1072, when bishop Remigius de Fécamp moved his seat from Dorchester on Thames to Lincoln. The building was completed in 1092, but severely damaged in an earthquake in 1185. It was rebuilt over the following centuries in the Gothic style. The cathedral became the tallest building in the world upon the completion of its 160-metre-high (525 ft) central spire in 1311.^{[dubious – discuss]} It surpassed the Great Pyramid of Giza, and held the title until the spire collapsed in 1548 and was not rebuilt.^[2]

The cathedral holds one of the four remaining copies of the original Magna Carta, which is now displayed in Lincoln Castle. It is the fourth largest cathedral in the UK by floor area, at approximately 5,000 m² (50,000 sq ft), after Liverpool Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral, and York Minster.^[3] It is highly regarded by architectural scholars; the Victorian writer John Ruskin declared: "I have always held ... that the cathedral of Lincoln is out and out the most precious piece of architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth any two other cathedrals we have."^[4]

1. ^ "Timeline - Lincoln Cathedral". Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference kendrick was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Floorplan - Lincoln Cathedral". Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
4. ^ "Lincoln Cathedral - Guide | Cathedrals Plus". www.cathedralsplus.org.uk. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2021.

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10 May 1994 – Nelson Mandela is inaugurated as South Africa's first black president.

Nelson Mandela

President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999

"Mandela" redirects here. Not to be confused with Mandala. For other uses, see Mandela (disambiguation) and Nelson Mandela (disambiguation).

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mænˈdɛlə/ man-DEH-lə;^[1] Xhosa: [xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla]; born Rolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid activist, politician, and statesman who served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

A Xhosa, Mandela was born into the Thembu royal family in Mvezo, South Africa. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its Youth League in 1944. After the National Party's white-only government established apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant uMkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and, following the Rivonia Trial, was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state.

Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation.

Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the far left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Globally regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Thembu clan name, Madiba, and described as the "Father of the Nation".

1. ^ "Mandela". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2013.

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11 May 1996 – The 1996 Mount Everest disaster: on a single day eight people die during summit attempts on Mount Everest.

1996 Mount Everest disaster

Death of eight climbers

The 1996 Mount Everest disaster occurred on 10–11 May 1996 when eight climbers caught in a blizzard died on Mount Everest while attempting to descend from the summit. Over the entire season, 12 people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest season on Mount Everest at the time and the third deadliest after the 23 fatalities resulting from avalanches caused by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake^[1] and the 16 fatalities of the 2014 Mount Everest avalanche. The 1996 disaster received widespread publicity and raised questions about the commercialization of Everest.^[2]

Numerous climbers were at a high altitude on Everest during the storm including the Adventure Consultants team, led by Rob Hall, and the Mountain Madness team, led by Scott Fischer. While climbers died on both the North Face and South Col approaches, the events on the latter were more widely reported. Four members of the Adventure Consultants expedition died, including Hall, while Fischer was the sole casualty of the Mountain Madness expedition. Three officers of the Indo-Tibetan Border Police also died.

Following the disaster, several survivors wrote memoirs. Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine and on the Adventure Consultants team, published Into Thin Air (1997)^[3] which became a bestseller. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide in the Mountain Madness team, felt impugned by the book and co-authored a rebuttal called The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest (1997).^[4] Beck Weathers, of Hall's expedition, and Lene Gammelgaard, of Fischer's expedition, wrote about their experiences in their respective books, Left for Dead: My Journey Home from Everest (2000)^[5] and Climbing High: A Woman's Account of Surviving the Everest Tragedy (2000).^[6] In 2014, Lou Kasischke, also of Hall's expedition, published his own account in After the Wind: 1996 Everest Tragedy, One Survivor's Story.

In addition to the members of the Adventure Consultants and Mountain Madness teams, Mike Trueman, who coordinated the rescue from Base Camp, contributed The Storms: Adventure and Tragedy on Everest (2015). Graham Ratcliffe, who climbed to the South Col of Everest on 10 May, noted in A Day to Die For (2011) that weather reports forecasting a major storm developing after 8 May and peaking in intensity on 11 May were delivered to expedition leaders. Hall and Fischer received these before their planned summit attempts on 10 May. Some of their teams summited Everest during an apparent break in this developing storm only to descend into the full force of it late on 10 May.

1. ^ "Mount Everest Nepal Earthquake". The New York Times. 28 April 2015.
2. ^ Dahlburg, John-Thor (1996). "Climbing Veterans Call Everest Deaths Inevitable". Los Angeles Times.
3. ^ Krakauer 1997, p. 296
4. ^ Boukreev, Anatoli; G. Weston Dewalt (1997). The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest. New York: St. Martins. ISBN 978-0-312-96533-4.
5. ^ Weathers, Beck; Stephen G. Michaud (2000). Left for Dead: My Journey Home from Everest. New York: Villard. ISBN 978-0-375-50404-4.
6. ^ Gammelgard, Lene (2000). Climbing High: A Woman's Account of Surviving the Everest Tragedy. New York: Perennial. ISBN 978-0-330-39227-3.

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12 May 1821 – The first major battle of the Greek War of Independence against the Turks is fought in Valtetsi.

Greek War of Independence

Greek rebellion against the Ottoman Empire (1821–1829)

The Greek War of Independence,^[a] also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829.^[3] In 1826, the Greeks were assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their North African vassals, particularly the eyalet of Egypt. The war led to the formation of modern Greece, which would be expanded to its modern size in later years. The revolution is celebrated by Greeks around the world as independence day on 25 March every year.

All Greek territory, except the Ionian Islands, the Mani Peninsula and some mountainous regions in Epirus came under Ottoman rule in the 15th century, in the decades surrounding the Fall of Constantinople.^[4] During the following centuries, there were many Greek uprisings against Ottoman rule. Most of these uprisings began in the independent Greek realm of the Mani Peninsula which was never conquered by the Ottomans, with the largest war culminating in 1770 during the Orlov Revolt.^[5] In 1814, a secret organization called the Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece, encouraged by revolution, which was common in Europe at the time. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The insurrection was planned for 25 March 1821 (in the Julian Calendar), the Orthodox Christian Feast of the Annunciation. However, the plans of the Filiki Eteria were discovered by the Ottoman authorities, forcing the revolution to start earlier. The first revolt began on 21 February 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. These events urged Greeks in the Peloponnese (Morea) into action and on 17 March 1821, the Maniots were first to declare war. In September 1821, the Greeks, under the leadership of Theodoros Kolokotronis, captured Tripolitsa. Revolts in Crete, Macedonia, and Central Greece broke out, but were eventually suppressed. Meanwhile, makeshift Greek fleets achieved success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea.

Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. The Ottoman Sultan called in Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son, Ibrahim Pasha, to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gains. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and brought most of the peninsula under Egyptian control by the end of that year. The town of Missolonghi fell in April 1826 after a year-long siege by the Turks. Despite a failed invasion of Mani, Athens also fell and revolutionary morale decreased.

At that point, the three great powers—Russia, Britain, and France—decided to intervene, sending their naval squadrons to Greece in 1827. Following news that the combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleet was going to attack the island of Hydra, the allied European fleets intercepted the Ottoman navy at Navarino. After a tense week-long standoff, the Battle of Navarino led to the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet and turned the tide in favor of the revolutionaries. In 1828, the Egyptian army withdrew under pressure from a French expeditionary force. The Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese surrendered and the Greek revolutionaries proceeded to retake central Greece. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia allowing for the Russian army to move into the Balkans, near Constantinople. This forced the Ottomans to accept Greek autonomy in the Treaty of Adrianople and semi-autonomy for Serbia and the Romanian principalities.^[6] After nine years of war, Greece was finally recognized as an independent state under the London Protocol of February 1830. Further negotiations in 1832 led to the London Conference and the Treaty of Constantinople, which defined the final borders of the new state and established Prince Otto of Bavaria as the first king of Greece.

1. ^ Sakalis, Alex (25 March 2021). "The Italians Who Fought for Greek Independence". Italics Magazine. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
2. ^ Note: Greece officially adopted the Gregorian calendar on 16 February 1923 (which became 1 March). All dates prior to that, unless specifically denoted, are Old Style.
3. ^ "War of Greek Independence | History, Facts, & Combatants". See also: Cartledge, Yianni; Varnava, Andrekos, eds. (2022). Yianni Cartledge & Andrekos Varnava (eds.), New Perspectives on the Greek War of Independence: Myths, Realities, Legacies and Reflections, Palgrave Macmillan/Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10849-5. ISBN 978-3031108488. S2CID 253805406.
4. ^ Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. p. 17. ISBN 978-0465008506.
5. ^ Woodhouse, A Story of Modern Greece, 'The Dark Age of Greece (1453–1800)', p. 113, Faber and Faber (1968)
6. ^ Bushkovitch, Paul (2012). A concise history of Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0521543231.

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13 May 1861 – The Great Comet of 1861 is discovered by John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales, Australia.

Great Comet of 1861

Redirect to:

• C/1861 J1

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14 May 1939 – Lina Medina becomes the youngest confirmed mother in medical history at the age of five.

Lina Medina

Peruvian woman, youngest confirmed mother in history

Lina Marcela Medina de Jurado (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈlina meˈðina]; born 23 September 1933)^[1] is a Peruvian woman who became the youngest confirmed mother in history when she gave birth on 14 May 1939, aged five years, seven months, and 21 days.^[1][2] Based on the medical assessments of her pregnancy, she was less than five years old when she became pregnant, which was possible due to precocious puberty.^[3]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Snopes was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Telegraph was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Raped 5 year-old Peruvian is world's youngest mum". P.M. News. 2 July 2020. Archived from the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2023.

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15 May 1935 – The Moscow Metro is opened to the public.

Moscow Metro

Rapid transit system in Moscow

The Moscow Metro^[a] is a metro system serving the Russian capital of Moscow as well as the neighbouring cities of Krasnogorsk, Reutov, Lyubertsy and Kotelniki in Moscow Oblast. Opened in 1935 with one 11-kilometre (6.8 mi) line and 13 stations, it was the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union.

As of 2023^[update], the Moscow Metro, excluding the Moscow Central Circle, the Moscow Central Diameters and the Moscow Monorail, had 294 stations and 514.5 km (319.7 mi) of route length, excluding light rail Monorail,^[1] making it the 8th-longest in the world and the longest outside China. It is the third metro system in the world (after Madrid and Beijing), which has two ring lines.^[2] The system is mostly underground, with the deepest section 84 metres (276 ft) underground at the Park Pobedy station, one of the world's deepest underground stations. It is the busiest metro system in Europe, the busiest in the world outside Asia, and is considered a tourist attraction in itself.^[3]

The Moscow Metro is a world leader in the frequency of train traffic—intervals during peak hours do not exceed 90 seconds.^[4] In February 2023, Moscow was the first in the world to reduce the intervals of metro trains to 80 seconds.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Метрополитен в цифрах [Metropolitan in figures] (in Russian). Moscow Metro. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
2. ^ "Как выглядят новые станции Большой кольцевой линии метро". MSK News. March 2023.
3. ^ "The best places to visit in Moscow". Expatica.
4. ^ "Москва первой в мире снизила интервал движения поездов метро до 90 секунд". Moscow 24.
5. ^ "Москва побила рекорд по интервалу движения поездов метро". NEWS.ru.

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17 May 1875 – Aristides wins the first Kentucky Derby.

Aristides (horse)

American thoroughbred racehorse

Aristides (1872–1893) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse that won the first Kentucky Derby in 1875.

In 1875, the Derby was raced at a mile and a half, the distance it would remain until 1896, when it was changed to its present mile and a quarter. Aristides also had a relative racing in the first Kentucky Derby in 1875.

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18 May 1927 – The Bath School disaster: forty-five people are killed by bombs planted by a disgruntled school-board member in Michigan.

Bath School disaster

1927 bombing attacks in Bath Township, Michigan

The Bath School disaster, also known as the Bath School massacre,^[c] was a series of violent attacks perpetrated by Andrew Kehoe upon the Bath Consolidated School in Bath Charter Township, Michigan, United States, on May 18, 1927. The attacks killed 38 children and 6 adults, and injured at least 58 other people. Prior to the explosions at the school, Kehoe had murdered his wife, Nellie Price Kehoe, and firebombed his farm. Arriving at the site of the school explosion, Kehoe died when he set off explosives concealed in his truck.

Kehoe, the 55-year-old school board treasurer, was angered by increased taxes and his defeat in the April 5, 1926, election for township clerk. It was thought by locals that he planned his "murderous revenge" following this public defeat. Kehoe had a reputation for being difficult, on the school board and in personal dealings. In addition, he was notified in June 1926 that his mortgage was going to be foreclosed upon. For much of the next year, Kehoe purchased explosives and secretly hid them on his property and under the school.

On the day of the disaster, Kehoe set off explosions at his farmstead and at the Bath Consolidated School, destroying his farm and ripping through the north wing of the school. As rescue efforts began, Kehoe drove up to the schoolyard in his shrapnel-filled truck and triggered a second explosion, killing himself and four others, as well as injuring bystanders.

During the rescue and recovery efforts, searchers discovered a further 500 pounds (230 kg) of explosives under the south wing of the school that had been set to go off simultaneously with the initial explosion. Kehoe had apparently intended to destroy the entire school, and everyone in it.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Clinton County Republican-News May 26 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference ellsworth ch 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference ellsworth ch 5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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8. ^ Zibulewsky, Joseph (April 14, 2001). "Defining disaster: the emergency department perspective". Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center). 14 (2). National Library of Medicine: 144–149. doi:10.1080/08998280.2001.11927751. PMC 1291330. PMID 16369605. when the destructive effects of natural or man-made forces ... Disasters are divided into 2 basic groups: natural and man-made
9. ^ NEHA Staff. "Man-Made Hazard Preparedness". National Environmental Health Association. Archived from the original on December 16, 2019. Retrieved March 26, 2022. Man-made disasters are extreme hazardous events that are caused by human beings.

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19 May 1802 – Napoleon Bonaparte founds the Legion of Honour.

Legion of Honour

Highest French order of merit

"Legion of Honor" redirects here. For other uses, see Legion of Honor (disambiguation).

The National Order of the Legion of Honour (French: Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur [ɔʁdʁ nɑsjɔnal də la leʒjɔ̃ dɔnœʁ]), formerly the Royal Order of the Legion of Honour (Ordre royal de la Légion d'honneur), is the highest French order of merit, both military and civil. Established in 1802 by Napoleon Bonaparte, it has been retained (with occasional slight alterations) by all later French governments and regimes.

The order's motto is Honneur et Patrie ("Honour and Fatherland"); its seat is the Palais de la Légion d'Honneur next to the Musée d'Orsay, on the left bank of the Seine in Paris.^[a] Since 1 February 2023, the Order's grand chancellor has been retired General François Lecointre, who succeeded fellow retired General Benoît Puga in office.

The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction: Chevalier (Knight), Officier (Officer), Commandeur (Commander), Grand officier (Grand Officer) and Grand-croix (Grand Cross).

1. ^ Le petit Larousse 2013, p.1567.

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20 May 1899 – The first traffic ticket in the US: New York City taxi driver Jacob German was arrested for speeding while driving 12 miles per hour on Lexington Street.

Traffic ticket

Type of notice issued by a law enforcement official

A traffic ticket is a notice issued by a law enforcement official to a motorist or other road user, indicating that the user has violated traffic laws. Traffic tickets generally come in two forms, citing a moving violation, such as exceeding the speed limit, or a non-moving violation, such as a parking violation, with the ticket also being referred to as a parking citation, or parking ticket.

In some jurisdictions, a traffic ticket constitutes a notice that a penalty, such as a fine or deduction of points, has been or will be assessed against the driver or owner of a vehicle; failure to pay generally leads to prosecution or to civil recovery proceedings for the fine. In others, the ticket constitutes only a citation and summons to appear at traffic court, with a determination of guilt to be made only in court.

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