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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 September 1968 – 60 Minutes debuts on CBS.

    60 Minutes

    60 Minutes is an American television news magazine broadcast on the CBS television network. Debuting in 1968, the program was created by Don Hewitt and Bill Leonard, who distinguished it from other news programs by using a unique style of reporter-centered investigation. In 2002, 60 Minutes was ranked number six on TV Guide's list of the "50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time",[1] and in 2013, it was ranked number 24 on the magazine's list of the "60 Best Series of All Time".[2] In 2023, Variety ranked 60 Minutes as the twentieth-greatest TV show of all time.[3] The New York Times has called it "one of the most esteemed news magazines on American television".[4]

    The program began in 1968 as a bi-weekly television show hosted by Mike Wallace and Harry Reasoner. The two sat on opposite sides of the cream-colored set, though the set's color was later changed to black, the color still in use. The show used a large stopwatch during transition periods and highlighted its topics through chroma key—both techniques are still used. In 1972, the program began airing from 6:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. Eastern time, although this time was sometimes disrupted by broadcasting of NFL games on Sundays. Since then, the show has generally kept the Sunday evening format, although the start time has occasionally been shifted. The program generally starts at 7:00 p.m. Eastern. If sports programming is airing that afternoon, 60 Minutes starts at 7:30 p.m. Eastern or at the game's conclusion.

    The show is hosted by correspondents who do not share screen time with each other. Full-time hosts include Lesley Stahl, Scott Pelley, and Bill Whitaker. Several spinoffs have been made, including international formats of the show. It is available on Paramount+.[5]

    1. ^ Cosgrove-Mather, Bootie (April 26, 2002). "TV Guide Names Top 50 Shows". CBS News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on February 7, 2012. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
    2. ^ "TV Guide Magazine's 60 Best Series of All Time". TV Guide. December 23, 2013.
    3. ^ "The 100 Greatest TV Shows of All In reality 60 minutes is really 43 minutes Time". Variety. December 20, 2023.
    4. ^ Carter, Bill; Schmidt, Michael S. (November 8, 2013). "CBS Correspondent Apologizes for Report on Benghazi Attack". The New York Times.
    5. ^ "60 mins Streaming: Watch & Stream Online via Paramount Plus". November 24, 2023.
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 September 1996 – The last of the Magdalene asylums closes in Ireland.

    Magdalene asylum

    Magdalene laundry in England, early twentieth century [1]

    Magdalene asylums, also known as Magdalene laundries, were initially Protestant but later mostly Roman Catholic institutions that operated from the 18th to the late 20th centuries, ostensibly to house "fallen women". The term referred to female sexual promiscuity or sex workers, young women who became pregnant outside of marriage, or young girls and teenagers who did not have familial support.[2] They were required to work without pay apart from meagre food provisions, while the institutions operated large commercial laundries, serving customers outside their bases.

    Many of these "laundries" were effectively operated as penitentiary workhouses. The strict regimes in the institutions were often more severe than those found in prisons. This contradicted the perceived outlook that they were meant to help women as opposed to punishing them. A survivor said of the working conditions: "The heat was unbelievable. You couldn't leave your station unless a bell went."[3] Laundries such as this operated in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Sweden, Canada, the United States, and Australia, for much of the 19th and well into the 20th century, the last one closing in 1996.[4] The institutions were named after the Biblical figure Mary Magdalene.

    The first Magdalene institution was founded in late 1758 in Whitechapel, England.[5] A similar institution was established in Ireland by 1767.[5] The first Magdalene asylum in the United States was the Magdalen Society of Philadelphia, founded in 1800. All these were Protestant institutions. Other cities followed, especially from around 1800, with Catholic institutions also being opened. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Magdalene asylums were common in several countries.[6] By 1900, there were more than 300 asylums in England and more than 20 in Scotland.[5][7]

    1. ^ from Frances Finnegan, Do Penance or Perish (Fig. 5) Congrave Press, 2001
    2. ^ Campsie, Alison (3 March 2017). "Scotland's Magdalene Asylums for "fallen women"". The Scotsman. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
    3. ^ Reilly, Gavan (5 February 2013). "In their own words: Survivors' accounts of life inside a Magdalene Laundry". TheJournal.ie. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
    4. ^ Culliton, Gary (25 September 1996). "LAST DAYS OF A LAUNDRY". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
    5. ^ a b c Finnegan 2001, p. 8
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Smithxv was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Magdalen Hospital for the Reception of Penitent Prostitutes". St-George-in-the-East Church. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 September 1933 – As gangster Machine Gun Kelly surrenders to the FBI, he shouts out, "Don’t shoot, G-Men!", which becomes a nickname for FBI ag

    Machine Gun Kelly

    Machine Gun Kelly most often refers to:

    Machine Gun Kelly may also refer to:

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 September 2001 – Zug massacre: In Zug, Switzerland, Friedrich Leibacher shoots 18 citizens, killing 14 and then himself.

    Zug massacre

    The Zug massacre took place on 27 September 2001 in the city of Zug (Canton of Zug, Switzerland) in the canton's parliament. Friedrich Leibacher shot dead 14 people before killing himself. Leibacher was armed with a civilian version of a Stgw 90, a SIG Sauer pistol, a pump-action shotgun, and a revolver, and wore a homemade police vest.

    In the years before the massacre, Leibacher drew attention to himself through repeated lawsuits. These were dismissed, so he assumed he was being persecuted by the state and felt he had to resort to violence. In the aftermath of the shooting, gun laws in Switzerland were tightened and changes in security were enacted.

     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 September 1995 – Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat sign the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.

    Oslo II Accord

    Official map of the first phase of the "Israeli-Palestinian interim agreement", Areas A and B (with C being defined as the rest of the West Bank)

    The Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip commonly known as Oslo II or Oslo 2, was a key and complex agreement in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. Because it was signed in Taba, Egypt, it is sometimes called the Taba Agreement. The Oslo Accords envisioned the establishment of a Palestinian interim self-government in the Palestinian territories. Oslo II created the Areas A, B and C in the West Bank. The Palestinian Authority was given some limited powers and responsibilities in the Areas A and B and a prospect of negotiations on a final settlement based on Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338. The Accord was officially signed on 28 September 1995.

     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 September 1923 – The British Mandate for Palestine takes effect, creating Mandatory Palestine.

    Mandatory Palestine

    Mandatory Palestine[a][4] was a geopolitical entity that existed between 1920 and 1948 in the region of Palestine under the terms of the League of Nations Mandate for Palestine.

    After an Arab uprising against the Ottoman Empire arose during the First World War in 1916, British forces drove Ottoman forces out of the Levant.[5] The United Kingdom had agreed in the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence that it would honour Arab independence in case of a revolt but, in the end, the United Kingdom and France divided what had been Ottoman Syria under the Sykes–Picot Agreement—an act of betrayal in the eyes of the Arabs. Another issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which Britain promised its support for the establishment of a Jewish "national home" in Palestine. Mandatory Palestine was then established in 1920, and the British obtained a Mandate for Palestine from the League of Nations in 1922.[6]

    During the Mandate, the area saw successive waves of Jewish immigration and the rise of nationalist movements in both the Jewish and Arab communities. Competing interests of the two populations led to the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine and the 1944–1948 Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine. The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine to divide the territory into two states, one Arab and one Jewish, was passed in November 1947. The 1948 Palestine war ended with the territory of Mandatory Palestine divided among the State of Israel, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, which annexed territory on the West Bank of the Jordan River, and the Kingdom of Egypt, which established the "All-Palestine Protectorate" in the Gaza Strip.

    Mandatory Palestine was designated as a Class A Mandate, based on its social, political, and economic development. This classification was reserved for post-war mandates with the highest capacity for self-governance.[7] All Class A mandates other than mandatory Palestine had gained independence by 1946.[8]

    1. ^ "Palestine seal". www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
    2. ^ Department of Statistics (1945). Village Statistics, April, 1945. Government of Palestine. Scan of the original document at the National Library of Israel.
    3. ^ 1922 Census of Palestine, retrieved 19 February 2024.
    4. ^ "League of Nations decision confirming the Principal Allied Powers' agreement on the territory of Palestine". Archived from the original on 25 November 2013.
    5. ^ Hughes, Matthew, ed. (2004). Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919. Army Records Society. Vol. 22. Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7509-3841-9. Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 in Hughes 2004, p. 128
    6. ^ Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine and "Mandate for Palestine", Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972
    7. ^ Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004, 2004 International Court of Justice 63.
    8. ^ Victor Kattan. From Coexistence to Conquest, International Law and the Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1891–1949. London, New York: Pluto Press, 2009.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 September 1968 – The Boeing 747 is rolled out and shown to the public for the first time at the Boeing Everett Factory.

    Boeing 747

    The Boeing 747 is a large, long-range wide-body airliner designed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes in the United States between 1968 and 2023. After introducing the 707 in October 1958, Pan Am wanted a jet 2+12 times its size, to reduce its seat cost by 30%. In 1965, Joe Sutter left the 737 development program to design the 747. In April 1966, Pan Am ordered 25 Boeing 747-100 aircraft, and in late 1966, Pratt & Whitney agreed to develop the JT9D engine, a high-bypass turbofan. On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was rolled out of the custom-built Everett Plant, the world's largest building by volume. The first flight took place on February 9, 1969, and the 747 was certified in December of that year. It entered service with Pan Am on January 22, 1970. The 747 was the first airplane called a "Jumbo Jet" as the first wide-body airliner.

    The 747 is a four-engined jet aircraft, initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engines, then General Electric CF6 and Rolls-Royce RB211 engines for the original variants. With a ten-abreast economy seating, it typically accommodates 366 passengers in three travel classes. It has a pronounced 37.5° wing sweep, allowing a Mach 0.85 (490 kn; 900 km/h) cruise speed, and its heavy weight is supported by four main landing gear legs, each with a four-wheel bogie. The partial double-deck aircraft was designed with a raised cockpit so it could be converted to a freighter airplane by installing a front cargo door, as it was initially thought that it would eventually be superseded by supersonic transports.

    Boeing introduced the -200 in 1971, with uprated engines for a heavier maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 833,000 pounds (378 t) from the initial 735,000 pounds (333 t), increasing the maximum range from 4,620 to 6,560 nautical miles [nmi] (8,560 to 12,150 km; 5,320 to 7,550 mi). It was shortened for the longer-range 747SP in 1976, and the 747-300 followed in 1983 with a stretched upper deck for up to 400 seats in three classes. The heavier 747-400 with improved RB211 and CF6 engines or the new PW4000 engine (the JT9D successor), and a two-crew glass cockpit, was introduced in 1989 and is the most common variant. After several studies, the stretched 747-8 was launched on November 14, 2005, with new General Electric GEnx engines, and was first delivered in October 2011. The 747 is the basis for several government and military variants, such as the VC-25 (Air Force One), E-4 Emergency Airborne Command Post, Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, and some experimental testbeds such as the YAL-1 and SOFIA airborne observatory.

    Initial competition came from the smaller trijet widebodies: the Lockheed L-1011 (introduced in 1972), McDonnell Douglas DC-10 (1971) and later MD-11 (1990). Airbus competed with later variants with the heaviest versions of the A340 until surpassing the 747 in size with the A380, delivered between 2007 and 2021. Freighter variants of the 747 remain popular with cargo airlines. The final 747 was delivered to Atlas Air in January 2023 after a 54-year production run, with 1,574 aircraft built. As of December 2023, 64 Boeing 747s (4.1%) have been lost in accidents and incidents, in which a total of 3,746 people have died.

     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 October 1971 – Walt Disney World opens near Orlando, Florida, United States.

    Walt Disney World

    The Walt Disney World Resort, also called Walt Disney World or Disney World, or simply abbreviated WDW, is an entertainment resort complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, United States, governed by the Central Florida Tourism Oversight District. The resort is located within Orange and Osceola counties, and located closest to the cities of Winter Garden and Kissimmee in Greater Orlando. Opened on October 1, 1971, the resort is operated by Disney Experiences, a division of The Walt Disney Company. The property covers nearly 25,000 acres (39 sq mi; 101 km2), of which half has been developed.[5] Walt Disney World contains four separate theme parks, two water parks, two mini-golf courses, and four golf courses. There are twenty-one Disney-operated resorts on the property, and many other resorts on and near the property. Disney World also contains the Boardwalk, The Fort Wilderness area, The ESPN Sports Complex, Disney Springs, Flamingo Crossings areas for shopping, dining, and entertainment.

    Designed to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955, the complex was developed by Walt Disney in the 1960s. Walt wanted to build a new park because Disneyland in California was limited from expanding by the establishments that sprung up around it. "The Florida Project", as it was known, was intended to present a distinct vision with its own diverse set of attractions. Walt Disney's original plans also called for the inclusion of an "Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow" (EPCOT), a planned community intended to serve as a testbed for new city-living innovations. Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, during the initial planning of the complex. After his death, the company wrestled with the idea of whether to bring the Disney World project to fruition; however, Walt's older brother, Roy O. Disney, came out of retirement to make sure Walt's biggest dream was realized. Construction started in 1967, with the company instead building a resort similar to Disneyland, abandoning the experimental concepts for a planned community. Magic Kingdom was the first theme park to open in the complex in 1971, followed by Epcot (known then as EPCOT Center) (1982), Disney's Hollywood Studios (known then as Disney-MGM Studios) (1989), and Disney's Animal Kingdom (1998). It was Roy who insisted the name of the entire complex be changed from Disney World to Walt Disney World, ensuring that people would remember that the project was Walt's dream.

    Walt Disney World is also covered by an FAA prohibited airspace zone that restricts all airspace activities without approval from the federal government of the United States,[6] including usage of drones; this level of protection is otherwise only offered to American critical infrastructure (such as the Pantex nuclear weapons plant), military bases, the Washington, D.C., Special Flight Rules Area, Camp David, and other official presidential travels.

    In 2018, Walt Disney World was the most visited vacation resort in the world, with an average annual attendance of more than 58 million.[7] The resort is the largest single-site employer in the United States,[4] the flagship destination of Disney's worldwide corporate enterprise[8] and has become a popular staple in American culture.

    1. ^ Walt Disney World Resort in Geonames.org (cc-by)
    2. ^ Reed, Molly (July 20, 2021). "More Disney World resorts, restaurants reopen after a year of updates". WKMG. Archived from the original on October 10, 2023. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
    3. ^ "New Leadership Team Announced At Disney Parks, Experiences And Products" (Press release). The Walt Disney Company. May 18, 2020. Archived from the original on May 26, 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
    4. ^ a b "Fact Sheet" (PDF). Disney Parks, Experiences and Products. February 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved February 20, 2020.
    5. ^ "Walt Disney World Fun Facts" (PDF). Walt Disney World News. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 3, 2020. Retrieved March 8, 2021.
    6. ^ "4/3634 NOTAM Details". Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on April 4, 2021. Retrieved March 30, 2021.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference 2018 Report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ "Disney Profile". Hospitality Online. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved July 7, 2007.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 October 1928 – The "Prelature of the Holy Cross and the Work of God", commonly known as Opus Dei, is founded by Saint Josemaría Escrivá.

    Opus Dei

    Opus Dei (Work of God) was founded in Spain in 1928 by Catholic priest Josemaría Escrivá. Its stated mission is to help its lay and clerical members to seek Christian perfection in their everyday occupations and within their societies. Opus Dei has long attracted significant controversy regarding its political activities and its alleged cult-like practices.

    Opus Dei is officially recognized within the Catholic Church, though its status has evolved. It received final approval by the Catholic Curch in 1950 by Pope Pius XII.[2] Pope Saint John Paul II made it a personal prelature in 1982 by the apostolic constitution Ut sit; that is, the jurisdiction of the Opus Dei's head covers members wherever they are, rather than geographical dioceses.[2]: 1–9  On 14 July 2022, Pope Francis issued the apostolic letter Ad charisma tuendum, which transferred responsibility for the Opus Dei from the Dicastery for Bishops to the Dicastery for the Clergy and decreed that the head of the Opus Dei cannot become a bishop.[3] While Opus Dei has met controversies, it remains influential within the Church.

    Lay people make up the majority of its membership; the remainder are secular priests under the governance of a prelate elected by specific members and appointed by the Pope.[4] Opus Dei is Latin for "Work of God"; hence the organization is often referred to by members and supporters as the Work.[5][6]

    As of 2018, there are 95,318 members of the Prelature: 93,203 lay persons and 2,115 priests.[1] These figures do not include the diocesan priest members of Opus Dei's Priestly Society of the Holy Cross, estimated to number 2,000 in the year 2005.[7] Members are located in more than 90 countries.[8] About 70% of Opus Dei members live in their own homes, leading family lives with secular careers,[9][10] while the other 30% are celibate, of whom the majority live in Opus Dei centers. Aside from their personal charity and social work, Opus Dei members organize training in Catholic spirituality applied to daily life; members are involved in running universities, university residences, schools, publishing houses, hospitals, and technical and agricultural training centers.

    1. ^ a b "Opus Dei (Personal Prelature) [Catholic-Hierarchy]". www.catholic-hierarchy.org. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
    2. ^ a b Berglar, Peter (1994). Opus Dei: Life and Work of Its Founder, Josemaria Escriva. Translated by Browne, Bernard; Chessman, Stuart; Junge, John; Gottschalk, Mary. Princeton, NJ: Scepter Publishers, Inc. p. 189. ISBN 0-933932-64-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Upon whom does the prelate of Opus Dei depend? Who appoints him?". Opus Dei.
    5. ^ "Decoding secret world of Opus Dei". BBC News. 16 September 2005. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
    6. ^ Bill Tammeus (19 October 2005). "Bishop confirms connection to group". Kansas City Star.
    7. ^ John Allen (2005). Opus Dei: An Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church. Doubleday Religion. ISBN 0-385-51449-2.
    8. ^ "Opus Dei to produce Italian cartoon and mini-series on St. Josemaria Escriva". Retrieved 11 December 2016.
    9. ^ "Opus Dei". BBC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
    10. ^ Terry Mattingly. "'Da Vinci Code' mania opened up Opus Dei". Albuquerque Tribune. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 October 1873 – Captain Jack and companions are hanged for their part in the Modoc War.

    Kintpuash

    Kintpuash, also known as Kientpaush,[1] Kientpoos,[2] and Captain Jack (c. 1837 – October 3, 1873), was a chief of the Modoc tribe of California and Oregon. Kintpuash's name in the Modoc language meant 'Strikes the water brashly.'

    He led a band from the Klamath Reservation to return to their lands in California, where they resisted return. From 1872 to 1873, their small force made use of the lava beds, holding off more numerous United States Army forces for months in the Modoc War. Kintpuash was the only Native American leader ever to be charged with war crimes, and he was executed by the Army, along with several followers, for their ambush killings of General Edward Canby and Reverend Eleazar Thomas at a peace commission meeting. The Modoc leaders were hanged for "murder in violation of the laws of war" by the Army.

    1. ^ Ball, Natalie (20 Oct 2009). "Re-Imaging a Native American History of (Un)-Belonging". The Other Journal. 16. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
    2. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888). "Chapter 19: Some Indian Episodes" . California Inter Pocula .
     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 October 1957 – Space Race: Launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth.

    Sputnik 1

    Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌtnɪk, ˈspʊtnɪk/, Russian: Спутник-1, Satellite 1) was the first artificial Earth satellite.[6] It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program. It sent a radio signal back to Earth for three weeks before its three silver-zinc batteries became depleted. Aerodynamic drag caused it to fall back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958. The world's first observation was made at the school observatory in Rodewisch (Saxony).[7]

    It was a polished metal sphere 58 cm (23 in) in diameter with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Its radio signal was easily detectable by amateur radio operators,[8] and the 65° orbital inclination made its flight path cover virtually the entire inhabited Earth.

    The satellite's success was unanticipated by the United States. This precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, part of the Cold War. The launch was the beginning of a new era of political, military, technological and scientific developments.[9]The word sputnik is Russian for satellite when interpreted in an astronomical context;[10] its other meanings are spouse or traveling companion.[11][12]

    Tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave data about the ionosphere.

    Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now known as the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite traveled at a peak speed of about 8 km/s (18,000 mph), taking 96.20 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz,[13] which were monitored by radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries depleted on 26 October 1957. On 4 January 1958, after three months in orbit, Sputnik 1 burned up while reentering Earth's atmosphere, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth,[3] and travelling a distance of approximately 70,000,000 km (43,000,000 mi).[14]

    1. ^ "Sputnik 1 (PS-1 #1)". Gunter's Space Page. 11 December 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
    2. ^ "SL-1 R/B". n2yo.com.
    3. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference rswSM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ a b c "Sputnik 1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference nssdc.orbit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Terry 2013, p. 233.
    7. ^ "Sternwarte und Planetarium - die Beobachtung von Sputnik 1".
    8. ^ Ralph H. Didlake, KK5PM; Oleg P. Odinets, RA3DNC (22 September 2008). "Sputnik and Amateur Radio". American Radio Relay League. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    9. ^ McDougall, Walter A. (Winter 2010). "Shooting The Moon". American Heritage. 59 (4). ISSN 0002-8738. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
    10. ^ "Display: Sputnik-1 1957-001B". NASA. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    11. ^ "Sputnik 1, Earth's First Artificial Satellite in Photos". SPACE.com. 4 October 2020.
    12. ^ "APOD: October 3, 1998 – Sputnik: Traveling Companion". apod.nasa.gov. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    13. ^ Jorden, William J. (5 October 1957). "Soviet Fires Earth Satellite Into Space". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
    14. ^ "Sputnik-1 1957-001B". NASA. 27 April 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2021. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 October 1999 – The Ladbroke Grove rail crash in west London kills 31 people.

    Ladbroke Grove rail crash

    The Ladbroke Grove rail crash (also known as the Paddington rail crash) was a rail accident which occurred on 5 October 1999 at Ladbroke Grove in London, England, when two passenger trains collided almost head-on after one of them had passed a signal at danger. With 31 people killed and 417 injured, it was one of the worst rail accidents in 20th-century British history.[1]

    It was the second major crash on the Great Western Main Line in just over two years, the first being the Southall rail crash of September 1997, a few miles west of this crash. Both crashes would have been prevented by an operational automatic train protection (ATP) system, wider fitting of which had been rejected on cost grounds. This severely damaged public confidence in the management and regulation of safety of Britain's privatised railway system.

    A public inquiry into the crash by Lord Cullen was held in 2000. Since both the Paddington and Southall crashes had reopened public debate on ATP, a separate joint inquiry considering the issue in the light of both crashes was also held in 2000; it confirmed the rejection of ATP and the mandatory adoption of a cheaper and less effective system, but noted a mismatch between public opinion and cost-benefit analysis.

    The Cullen inquiry was carried out in two blocks of sittings, sandwiching the 'joint inquiry'; the first block dealt with the crash itself, the second block dealt with the management and regulation of UK railway safety; this had always been part of the inquiry terms of reference, but was given additional urgency by a further train crash at Hatfield in October 2000.[2] Major changes in the formal responsibilities for management and regulation of safety of UK rail transport ensued.

    1. ^ "Paddington rail disaster: 'Her last words to me were goodbye, Daddy'". The Daily Telegraph. 28 September 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
    2. ^ The inquiry report is in 2 volumes, reflecting this division; the narrative and the account of the most likely cause and identified shortcomings are based upon Volume 1 of the enquiry report
     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 October 1973 – Egypt launches a coordinated attack with Syria against Israel leading to the Yom Kippur War.

    Yom Kippur War

    The Yom Kippur War, also known as the Ramadan War, the October War,[60] the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, or the Fourth Arab–Israeli War, was an armed conflict fought from 6 to 25 October 1973, between Israel and a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria. The majority of combat between the two sides took place in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights—both of which had been occupied by Israel in 1967—with some fighting in African Egypt and northern Israel.[61][62][page needed] Egypt's initial objective in the war was to seize a foothold on the eastern bank of the Suez Canal and subsequently leverage these gains to negotiate the return of the rest of the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula.[63][64][65][66]

    The war began on 6 October 1973, when the Arab coalition jointly launched a surprise attack against Israel on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, which had occurred during the 10th day of the Islamic holy month of Ramadan in that year.[67] Following the outbreak of hostilities, both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their allies (Israel and the Arab states respectively) during the war,[68][69][70] which led to a confrontation between the two nuclear-armed superpowers.[71]

    Fighting commenced when Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed their corresponding ceasefire lines with Israel and entered the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal in Operation Badr and advanced into the Sinai Peninsula; the Syrians launched a coordinated attack in the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made gains into Israeli-held territory. After three days of heavy fighting, Israel halted the Egyptian offensive, resulting in a military stalemate on that front, and pushed the Syrians back to the pre-war ceasefire lines. The Israeli military then launched a four-day-long counter-offensive deep into Syria, and within a week Israeli artillery began to shell the outskirts of the Syrian capital of Damascus. Egyptian forces meanwhile pushed for two strategic mountain passes deeper within the Sinai Peninsula but were repulsed, and Israeli forces counter-attacked by crossing the Suez Canal into Egypt and advancing towards Suez City.[72][73] On 22 October, an initial ceasefire brokered by the United Nations unravelled, with each side blaming the other for the breach.

    By 24 October, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army and Suez City, bringing them within 100 kilometres (62 mi) of the Egyptian capital of Cairo. This development led to dangerously heightened tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, and a second ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on 25 October 1973, to officially end the war.

    The Yom Kippur War had far-reaching implications; the Arab world had experienced humiliation in the lopsided rout of the Egyptian–Syrian–Jordanian alliance in 1967 but felt psychologically vindicated by early successes in the 1973 conflict. The Israelis recognized that, despite impressive operational and tactical achievements on the battlefield, there was no guarantee that they would always dominate the Arab states militarily, as they had done consistently throughout the First, Second and Third Arab–Israeli Wars; these changes paved the way for the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. At the 1978 Camp David Accords that followed the war, Israel returned the entire Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, which led to the subsequent 1979 Egyptian–Israeli peace treaty, marking the first instance that an Arab country recognized Israel as a legitimate state. Following the achievement of peace with Israel, Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and eventually left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely.

    1. ^ Edgar O'Ballance (1979). No Victor, No Vanquished: The Yom Kippur War (1979 ed.). Barrie & Jenkins. pp. 28–370. ISBN 978-0-214-20670-2.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Shazly p.278 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "An unknown story from the Yom Kippur war: Israeli F-4s vs North Korean MiG-21s". The Aviationist. 24 June 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
    4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Rabinovich464-465 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference tlas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ a b Mahjoub Tobji (2006). Les officiers de Sa Majesté: Les dérives des généraux marocains 1956–2006. 107: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-63015-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
    7. ^ a b Ra’anan, G. D. (1981). The Evolution of the Soviet Use of Surrogates in Military Relations with the Third World, with Particular Emphasis on Cuban Participation in Africa. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation. p. 37
    8. ^ Shazly, pp. 83–84.
    9. ^ Cenciotti, David. "Israeli F-4s Actually Fought North Korean MiGs During the Yom Kippur War". Business Insider.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference nicolle was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Aloni was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Herzog (1975), Foreword.
    13. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, p. 450.
    14. ^ Luttwak; Horowitz (1983). The Israeli Army. Cambridge, MA: Abt Books. ISBN 978-0-89011-585-5.
    15. ^ Rabinovich (2004). The Yom Kippur War. Schocken Books. p. 498.
    16. ^ Kumaraswamy, PR (2000). Revisiting The Yom Kippur War. Psychology Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-7146-5007-4.
    17. ^ Johnson & Tierney 2009, pp. 177, 180.
    18. ^ Liebman, Charles (July 1993). "The Myth of Defeat: The Memory of the Yom Kippur war in Israeli Society" (PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 29 (3). London: Frank Cass: 411. doi:10.1080/00263209308700958. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2013.
    19. ^ "Milestones: 1969–1976 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
    20. ^ Simon Dunstan (18 September 2007). The Yom Kippur War: The Arab-Israeli War of 1973. Bloomsbury USA. p. 205. ISBN 978-1-84603-288-2.[permanent dead link]
    21. ^ Asaf Siniver (2013). The Yom Kippur War: Politics, Legacy, Diplomacy. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-19-933481-0. (p. 6) "For most Egyptians the war is remembered as an unquestionable victory—militarily as well as politically ... The fact that the war ended with Israeli troops stationed in the outskirts of Cairo and in complete encirclement of the Egyptian third army has not dampened the jubilant commemoration of the war in Egypt." (p. 11) "Ultimately, the conflict provided a military victory for Israel, but it is remembered as 'the earthquake' or 'the blunder'"
    22. ^ Ian Bickerton (2012). The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4411-2872-0. the Arab has suffered repeated military defeats at the hand of Israel in 1956, 1967, and 1973
    23. ^ P.R. Kumaraswamy (2013). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War. Routledge. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-136-32888-6. (p. 184) "Yom Kippur War ... its final outcome was, without doubt, a military victory  ... " (p. 185) " ...  in October 1973, that despite Israel's military victory"
    24. ^ Loyola, Mario (7 October 2013). "How We Used to Do It – American diplomacy in the Yom Kippur War". National Review. p. 1. Retrieved 2 December 2013.
    25. ^ See[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]
    26. ^ a b Morris, 2011, Righteous Victims, p. 437
    27. ^ Morris, 2011 p. 433, "Bashan ... 500 square kilometers ... which brought it within 20 miles [32 km] of Damascus"
    28. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Rabinovich, p54 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    29. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times, pp. 372–373.
    30. ^ a b c The number reflects artillery units of caliber 100 mm and up
    31. ^ Herzog (1975), p. 239.
    32. ^ Cite error: The named reference Shazly p.244 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    33. ^ Shazly, p. 272.
    34. ^ Haber & Schiff, pp. 30–31.
    35. ^ Cite error: The named reference knapp was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    36. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Rabinovich, 314 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    37. ^ Bar-On, Mordechai (2004). A Never Ending Conflict. Greenwood Publishing. p. 170.
    38. ^ Neil Partrick (2016). Saudi Arabian Foreign Policy: Conflict and Cooperation. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-85772-793-0.
    39. ^ "بطولات السعوديين حاضرة.. في الحروب العربية". Okaz. 17 November 2019. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.
    40. ^ Cite error: The named reference cmu1978 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    41. ^ a b Touchard, Laurent (7 November 2013). "Guerre du Kippour : quand le Maroc et l'Algérie se battaient côte à côte". Jeune Afrique. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
    42. ^ a b c "Le jour où Hassan II a bombardé Israël". Le Temps. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
    43. ^ Williams, John Hoyt (1 August 1988). "Cuba: Havana's Military Machine". The Atlantic. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
    44. ^ The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991. Routledge. 2004. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-134-26933-4.
    45. ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    46. ^ a b c d e f g Cite error: The named reference Garwych, p. 243 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    47. ^ Journal "الأهرام","Al Ahram". 14 October 1974
    48. ^ Rabinovich. The Yom Kippur War. p. 497.
    49. ^ Cite error: The named reference Rabinovich, 496 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    50. ^ Cite error: The named reference White House Military Briefing was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    51. ^ "القوة الثالثة، تاريخ القوات الجوية المصرية." Third Power: History of Egyptian Air Force Ali Mohammed Labib. pp. 187
    52. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference autogenerated87 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    53. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference autogenerated2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    54. ^ a b Dunstan, p. 200.
    55. ^ Rabinovich p. 497
    56. ^ Cite error: The named reference Rabinovich, 496-7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    57. ^ Cite error: The named reference Garwych p 244 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    58. ^ Cite error: The named reference Herzog, 260 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    59. ^ Herzog (1975), p. 269.
    60. ^ (Hebrew: מלחמת יום הכיפורים, Milẖemet Yom HaKipurim, or מלחמת יום כיפור, Milẖemet Yom Kipur; Arabic: حرب أكتوبر, Ḥarb ʾUktōbar, or حرب تشرين, Ḥarb Tišrīn),
    61. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (2004). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East. Schoken Books. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-8052-1124-5.
    62. ^ Herzog (1975).
    63. ^ Herzog (1975), p. 37.
    64. ^ Insight Team of the London Sunday Times (1974), p. 15.
    65. ^ Herzog (1982), p. 321.
    66. ^ James Bean and Craig Girard (2001). "Anwar al-Sadat's grand strategy in the Yom Kippur War" (PDF). National War College. pp. 1, 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
    67. ^ Cite error: The named reference El-Gamasy 1993 181 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    68. ^ Cite error: The named reference GutfeldVanetik2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    69. ^ Rodman, David (29 July 2015). "The Impact of American Arms Transfers to Israel during the 1973 Yom Kippur War". Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 7 (3): 107–114. doi:10.1080/23739770.2013.11446570. S2CID 141596916. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
    70. ^ Levey, Zach (7 October 2008). "Anatomy of an airlift: United States military assistance to Israel during the 1973 war". Cold War History. 8 (4): 481–501. doi:10.1080/14682740802373552. S2CID 154204359. Retrieved 20 February 2023.
    71. ^ Quandt, William (2005). Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967 (third ed.). California: University of California Press. pp. 104–105. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7.
    72. ^ Hammad (2002), pp. 237–276
    73. ^ Gawrych (1996), p. 60
     
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    7 October 1996 – The Fox News Channel begins broadcasting.

    Fox News Channel

    Redirect to:

     
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    8 October 1860 – Telegraph line between Los Angeles and San Francisco opens.

    Electrical telegraph

    Cooke and Wheatstone's five-needle telegraph from 1837
    Morse Telegraph
    Hughes telegraph, an early (1855) teleprinter built by Siemens and Halske

    Electrical telegraphs were point-to-point text messaging systems, primarily used from the 1840s until the late 20th century. It was the first electrical telecommunications system and the most widely used of a number of early messaging systems called telegraphs, that were devised to communicate text messages more quickly than physical transportation.[1][2] Electrical telegraphy can be considered to be the first example of electrical engineering.[3]

    Text telegraphy consisted of two or more geographically separated stations, called telegraph offices. The offices were connected by wires, usually supported overhead on utility poles. Many different electrical telegraph systems were invented, but the ones that became widespread fit into two broad categories. The first category consists of needle telegraphs in which a needle pointer is made to move electromagnetically with an electric current sent down the telegraph line. Early systems used multiple needles requiring multiple wires. The first commercial system, and the most widely used needle telegraph, was the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, invented in 1837. The second category consists of armature systems in which the current activates a telegraph sounder that makes a click. The archetype of this category was the Morse system, invented by Samuel Morse in 1838. In 1865, the Morse system became the standard for international communication using a modified code developed for German railways.

    Electrical telegraphs were used by the emerging railway companies to develop train control systems, minimizing the chances of trains colliding with each other.[4] This was built around the signalling block system with signal boxes along the line communicating with their neighbouring boxes by telegraphic sounding of single-stroke bells and three-position needle telegraph instruments.

    In the 1840s, the electrical telegraph superseded optical telegraph systems, becoming the standard way to send urgent messages. By the latter half of the century, most developed nations had created commercial telegraph networks with local telegraph offices in most cities and towns, allowing the public to send messages called telegrams addressed to any person in the country, for a fee.

    Beginning in 1850, submarine telegraph cables allowed for the first rapid communication between continents. Electrical telegraph networks permitted people and commerce to transmit messages across both continents and oceans almost instantly, with widespread social and economic impacts. c. 1894, the electric telegraph led to Guglielmo Marconi's invention of wireless telegraphy, the first means of radiowave telecommunication.[5]

    In the early 20th century, manual telegraphy was slowly replaced by teleprinter networks. Increasing use of the telephone pushed telegraphy into a few specialist uses. Use by the general public was mainly special occasion telegram greetings. The rise of the Internet and usage of email in the 1990s largely put an end to dedicated telegraphy networks.

    1. ^ Wenzlhuemer, Roland (August 2007). "The Development of Telegraphy, 1870–1900: A European Perspective on a World History Challenge" (PDF). History Compass. 5 (5): 1720–1742. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00461.x. ISSN 1478-0542.
    2. ^ Kieve 1973, p. 13.
    3. ^ Roberts, Steven. "Distant Writing: A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868: 2. Introduction". Using these discoveries a number of inventors or rather 'adapters' appeared, taking this new knowledge, transforming it into useful ideas with commercial utility; the first of these 'products' was the use of electricity to transmit information between distant points, the electric telegraph.
    4. ^ Vanns, Michael A. (2012). Signalling in the Age of Steam. abc (2 ed.). Ian Allan. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7110-3536-2.
    5. ^ Moss, Stephen (10 July 2013), "Final telegram to be sent. STOP", The Guardian: International Edition
     
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    9 October 1919 – Black Sox Scandal: The Cincinnati Reds win the World Series.

    Black Sox Scandal

    The eight "Chicago Black Sox"

    The Black Sox Scandal was a Major League Baseball game-fixing scandal in which eight members of the Chicago White Sox were accused of losing the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds on purpose in exchange for money from a gambling syndicate led by organized crime figure Arnold Rothstein. In response, the National Baseball Commission was dissolved and Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis was appointed to be the first Commissioner of Baseball, given absolute control over the sport to restore its integrity.

    Despite acquittals in a public trial in 1921, Commissioner Landis permanently banned all eight players from professional baseball. The Baseball Hall of Fame eventually defined the punishment as banishment from consideration for the Hall. Despite requests for reinstatement in the decades that followed (particularly in the case of Shoeless Joe Jackson), the ban remains in force.[1]

    1. ^ Owens, John. "Buck Weaver's family pushes to get 'Black Sox' player reinstated". Chicagotribune.com. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
     
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    10 October 1933 – 1933 United Airlines Boeing 247 mid-air explosion: A United Airlines Boeing 247 is destroyed by sabotage, the first such proven case in the history of commercial aviation.

    1933 United Airlines Boeing 247 mid-air explosion

     
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    11 October 1982 – The Mary Rose, a Tudor carrack which sank on July 19, 1545, is salvaged from the sea bed of the Solent, off Portsmouth.

    Mary Rose

    The Mary Rose was a carrack in the English Tudor navy of King Henry VIII. She was launched in 1511 and served for 33 years in several wars against France, Scotland, and Brittany. After being substantially rebuilt in 1536, she saw her last action on 19 July 1545. She led the attack on the galleys of a French invasion fleet, but sank in the Solent, the strait north of the Isle of Wight.

    The wreck of the Mary Rose was located in 1971 and was raised on 11 October 1982 by the Mary Rose Trust in one of the most complex and expensive maritime salvage projects in history. The surviving section of the ship and thousands of recovered artefacts are of great value as a Tudor period time capsule. The excavation and raising of the Mary Rose was a milestone in the field of maritime archaeology, comparable in complexity and cost to the raising of the 17th-century Swedish warship Vasa in 1961. The Mary Rose site is designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 by statutory instrument 1974/55. The wreck is a Protected Wreck managed by Historic England.

    The finds include weapons, sailing equipment, naval supplies, and a wide array of objects used by the crew. Many of the artefacts are unique to the Mary Rose and have provided insights into topics ranging from naval warfare to the history of musical instruments. The remains of the hull have been on display at the Portsmouth Historic Dockyard since the mid-1980s while undergoing restoration. An extensive collection of well-preserved artefacts is on display at the Mary Rose Museum, built to display the remains of the ship and its artefacts.

    Mary Rose was one of the largest ships in the English navy through more than three decades of intermittent war, and she was one of the earliest examples of a purpose-built sailing warship. She was armed with new types of heavy guns that could fire through the recently invented gun-ports. She was substantially rebuilt in 1536 and was also one of the earliest ships that could fire a broadside, although the line of battle tactics had not yet been developed. Several theories have sought to explain the demise of the Mary Rose, based on historical records, knowledge of 16th-century shipbuilding, and modern experiments. The precise cause of her sinking is subject to conflicting testimonies and a lack of conclusive evidence.

     
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    12 October 1928 – An iron lung respirator is used for the first time at Children's Hospital, Boston

    Negative pressure ventilator

    A negative pressure ventilator (NPV) is a type of mechanical ventilator that stimulates an ill person's breathing by periodically applying negative air pressure to their body to expand and contract the chest cavity.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

    1. ^ Shneerson, Dr. John M., Newmarket General Hospital, (Newmarket, Suffolk, U.K.), "Non-invasive and domiciliary ventilation: negative pressure techniques," #5 of series "Assisted ventilation" in Thorax, 1991;46: pp.131-135, retrieved April 12, 2020
    2. ^ Grum, Cyril M., MD, and Melvin L. Morganroth, MD, "Initiating Mechanical Ventilation," in Intensive Care Medicine 1988;3:6-20, retrieved April 12, 2020
    3. ^ Rockoff, Mark, M.D., "The Iron Lung and Polio,", video (8 minutes), January 11, 2016, OPENPediatrics and Boston Children's Hospital on YouTube, retrieved April 11, 2020 (historical background and images, explanatory diagrams, and live demonstrations)
    4. ^ "The Iron Lung," Science Museum Group, Kensington, London, England, U.K., retrieved April 11, 2020
    5. ^ "How Does Iron Lung Work?: Polio Survivor, 82, Among Last to Use Breathing Equipment," August 21, 2018, Newsweek retrieved April 11, 2020
    6. ^ Jackson, Christopher D., MD, Dept. of Internal Medicine, and Muthiah P Muthiah, MD, FCCP, D-ABSM, Assoc. Prof. of Medicine, Div. of Pulmonary / Critical Care / Sleep Medicine, Univ. of Tennessee College of Medicine-Memphis, et.al., "What is the background of the iron lung form of mechanical ventilation?," April 11, 2019, Medscape, retrieved April 12, 2020 (short summary of iron history and technology, with photo)
     
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    13 October 1972 – An Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-62 crashes outside Moscow killing 174.

    Aeroflot Flight 217

    Aeroflot Flight 217 was a non-scheduled international passenger flight from Orly Airport in Paris to Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow, with a stopover at Shosseynaya Airport (now Pulkovo Airport) in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg). On 13 October 1972, the Ilyushin Il-62 airliner operating the flight crashed on approach to Sheremetyevo, with the loss of all 164 passengers and crew of 10. At the time, it was the world's deadliest civil aviation disaster, until it was surpassed by the Kano air disaster in 1973.[1] As of 2023, this remains the second-deadliest accident involving an Il-62, after LOT Flight 5055, and the second-deadliest on Russian soil, after Aeroflot Flight 3352.[2][3][4]

    1. ^ Leddington, Roger (16 October 1972). "Death toll at 176 in Russian crash". Nashua Telegraph. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
    2. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin 62 CCCP-86671 Moskva-Sheremetyevo Airport (SVO)". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network. Archived from the original on 8 April 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
    3. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin 62M SP-LBG Warszawa-Okecie Airport (WAW)". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network. Archived from the original on 10 November 2005. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
    4. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Tupolev 154B-1 CCCP-85243 Omsk Airport (OMS)". aviation-safety.net. Aviation Safety Network. Archived from the original on 22 March 2005. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
     
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    14 October 1964 – Martin Luther King, Jr. received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence.

    Martin Luther King, Jr.

     
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    15 October 1987 – The Great Storm of 1987 hits France and England.

    Great Storm of 1987

     
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    16 October 1968 – Kingston, Jamaica is rocked by the Rodney Riots, inspired by the barring of Walter Rodney from the country.

    Rodney Riots

    Redirect to:

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
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    17 October 1814 – London Beer Flood occurs in London, killing eight.

    London Beer Flood

    Etching of brewery working; two drays of horses pull deliveries away from the building.
    Horse Shoe Brewery, London, c. 1800

    The London Beer Flood was an accident at Meux & Co's Horse Shoe Brewery, London, on 17 October 1814. It took place when one of the 22-foot-tall (6.7 m) wooden vats of fermenting porter burst. The escaping liquid dislodged the valve of another vessel and destroyed several large barrels: between 128,000 and 323,000 imperial gallons (580,000–1,470,000 L; 154,000–388,000 US gal) of beer were released in total.

    The resulting wave of porter destroyed the back wall of the brewery and swept into an area of slum dwellings known as the St Giles rookery. Eight people were killed, five of them mourners at the wake being held by an Irish family for a two-year-old boy. The coroner's inquest returned a verdict that the eight had lost their lives "casually, accidentally and by misfortune".[1] The brewery was nearly bankrupted by the event; it avoided collapse after a rebate from HM Excise on the lost beer. The brewing industry gradually stopped using large wooden vats after the accident. The brewery moved in 1921, and the Dominion Theatre is now where the brewery used to stand. Meux & Co went into liquidation in 1961.

     
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    18 October 1968 – The U.S. Olympic Committee suspends Tommie Smith and John Carlos for giving a "Black Power" salute during a victory ceremony at the Mexico City games.

    Tommie Smith

    Tommie C. Smith (born June 6, 1944)[3] is an American former track and field athlete and former wide receiver in the American Football League. At the 1968 Summer Olympics, Smith, aged 24, won the 200-meter sprint finals and gold medal in 19.83 seconds – the first time the 20-second barrier was broken officially. His Black Power salute with John Carlos atop the medal podium to protest racism and injustice against African Americans in the United States caused controversy, as it was seen as politicizing the Olympic Games. It remains a symbolic moment in the history of the Black Power movement.

    1. ^ a b c d "Tommie SMITH | Profile". iaaf.org. IAAF. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
    2. ^ a b c d e f g h "Tommie Smith Bio, Stats, and Results". sports-reference.com. Sports Reference. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2019.
    3. ^ Tommie Smith and David Steele, Silent Gesture: the autobiography of Tommie Smith (2007). Temple University Press, p. 42.
     
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    19 October 1935 – The League of Nations places economic sanctions on fascist Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia.

    League of Nations

    The League of Nations (French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃]) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.[1] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organization ceased operations on 20 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.

    The League's primary goals were stated in its Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.[2] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.[3] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.[4] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

    The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allies of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."[5]

    At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined, and Japan and Germany quit in 1933–1934. Italy quit in 1937. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.[6][7][8][9] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose; it was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

    Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilization and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.[10] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.[11]

    1. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
    2. ^ "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
    3. ^ See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
    4. ^ Rees, Dr Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
    5. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
    6. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
    7. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
    8. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
    9. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Kennedy 1987.
     
  27. Admin2

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    20 October 1973 – "Saturday Night Massacre": United States President Richard Nixon fires U.S. Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus after they refuse to fire Watergate special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who is finally fired by Robert Bork.

    Saturday Night Massacre

    The Saturday Night Massacre was a series of events that took place in the United States on the evening of Saturday, October 20, 1973, during the Watergate scandal.[1] US President Richard Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox; Richardson refused and resigned effective immediately. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus to fire Cox; Ruckelshaus refused, and also resigned. Nixon then ordered the third-most-senior official at the Justice Department, Solicitor General Robert Bork, to fire Cox. Bork carried out the dismissal as Nixon asked.[2] Bork stated that he intended to resign afterward, but was persuaded by Richardson and Ruckelshaus to stay on for the good of the Justice Department.[3][4]

    The political and public reactions to Nixon's actions were negative and highly damaging to the president. The impeachment process against Nixon began ten days later, on October 30, 1973. Leon Jaworski was appointed as the new special prosecutor on November 1, 1973,[5] and on November 14, 1973, United States District Judge Gerhard Gesell ruled that the dismissal had been illegal.[6][7] The Saturday Night Massacre marked the turning point of the Watergate scandal as the public, while increasingly uncertain about Nixon's actions in Watergate, were incensed by Nixon's seemingly blatant attempt to end the Watergate probe, while Congress, having largely taken a wait-and-see policy regarding Nixon's role in the scandal, quickly turned on Nixon and initiated impeachment proceedings that would end in Nixon's resignation.

    1. ^ Andrews, Evan. "What Was the Saturday Night Massacre?". HISTORY. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
    2. ^ "A Brief History Of Nixon's 'Saturday Night Massacre'". NPR.org. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
    3. ^ "Bork: Nixon Offered Next High Court Vacancy in '73". Yahoo News. ABC News. February 25, 2013. Archived from the original on March 1, 2013.
    4. ^ Noble, Kenneth B.; Times, Special To the New York (July 2, 1987). "Bork Irked by Emphasis on His Role in Watergate". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
    5. ^ "Attorney General, Prosecutor Picked". The Argus-Press. Associated Press. November 1, 1973.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference noble was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Nader v. Bork, 366 F. Supp. 104 (D.D.C. 1973)
     
  28. Admin2

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    21 October 1854 – Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses are sent to the Crimean War.

    Florence Nightingale

    Florence Nightingale OM RRC DStJ (/ˈntɪŋɡl/; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English social reformer, statistician and the founder of modern nursing. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the Crimean War, in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at Constantinople.[4] She significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards. Nightingale gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of Victorian culture, especially in the persona of "The Lady with the Lamp" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.[5][6]

    Recent commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women.[7] In 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world and is now part of King's College London.[8] In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated on her birthday. Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish prostitution laws that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.

    Nightingale was a pioneer in statistics; she represented her analysis in graphical forms to ease drawing conclusions and actionables from data. She is famous for usage of the polar area diagram, also called the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular histogram. This diagram is still regularly used in data visualisation.

    Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She was also a pioneer in data visualisation with the use of infographics, using graphical presentations of statistical data in an effective way.[7] Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and mysticism, has only been published posthumously.

    1. ^ "Florence Nightingale". King's College London. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
    2. ^ "Florence Nightingale 2nd rendition, 1890 – greetings to the dear old comrades of Balaclava". Internet Archive. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
    3. ^ Buhnemann, Kristin (17 February 2020). "Florence Nightingale's Voice, 1890". florence-nightingale.co.uk. Florence Nightingale Museum London. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
    4. ^ Strachey, Lytton (1918). Eminent Victorians. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 123.
    5. ^ Swenson, Kristine (2005). Medical Women and Victorian Fiction. University of Missouri Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8262-6431-2.
    6. ^ Ralby, Aaron (2013). "The Crimean War 1853–1856". Atlas of Military History. Parragon. pp. 281. ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1.
    7. ^ a b Bostridge, Mark (17 February 2011). "Florence Nightingale: the Lady with the Lamp". BBC. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
    8. ^ Petroni, A (1969). "The first nursing school in the world – St. Thomas Hospital School in London". Munca Sanit. 17 (8): 449–454. PMID 5195090.
     
  29. Admin2

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    22 October 1975 – The Soviet unmanned space mission Venera 9 lands on Venus.

    Venera 9

    Venera 9 (Russian: Венера-9, lit.'Venus-9'), manufacturer's designation: 4V-1 No. 660,[4] was a Soviet uncrewed space mission to Venus. It consisted of an orbiter and a lander. It was launched on June 8, 1975, at 02:38:00 UTC and had a mass of 4,936 kilograms (10,882 lb).[5] The orbiter was the first spacecraft to orbit Venus, while the lander was the first to return images from the surface of another planet.[6]

    1. ^ Siddiqi, Asif (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016 (PDF) (second ed.). NASA History Program Office.
    2. ^ a b McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved April 11, 2013.
    3. ^ Siddiqi, Asif A. (2018). Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958–2016 (PDF). The NASA history series (second ed.). Washington, DC: NASA History Program Office. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-1-62683-042-4. LCCN 2017059404. SP2018-4041.
    4. ^ "History of the Venera 75 project". RussianSpaceWeb.com.
    5. ^ "Venera 9". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved April 13, 2013.
    6. ^ "Solar System Exploration Multimedia Gallery: Venera 9". NASA. Archived from the original on August 3, 2009. Retrieved August 7, 2009.
     
  30. Admin2

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    23 October 1998 – Swatch Internet Time, a measure of 1000 "beats" per day was inaugurated by the Swatch Group.

    Swatch Internet Time

    Swatch Internet Time logo

    Swatch Internet Time (or .beat time) is a decimal time system introduced in 1998 by the Swatch corporation as part of their marketing campaign for their line of ".beat" watches. Those without a watch can use the Internet to view the current time on the watchmaker's website. The concept is actually the same as decimal minutes in French Revolutionary decimal time.

    Instead of hours and minutes, the mean solar day is divided into 1,000 parts called .beats. Each .beat lasts 86.4 seconds (1.440 minutes) in standard time. The time of day begins at midnight and is notated from 1 to 1000; for example, @248 BEATS would indicate a time 248 .beats after midnight, representing 2481000 of a day, just over 5 hours and 57 minutes.

    There are no time zones in Swatch Internet Time; it is globally based on the time zone of Biel, Switzerland, where Swatch's headquarters is located, what is conventionally known as Central European Time (UTC+1 or West Africa Time). Swatch calls this "Biel Mean Time" (BMT), although it is not actually mean solar time as measured in Biel. And, unlike civil time in Switzerland and many other countries, Swatch Internet Time does not observe daylight saving time (DST).
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  31. Admin2

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    24 October 1960 – Nedelin catastrophe: An R-16 ballistic missile explodes on the launch pad at the Soviet Union's Baikonur Cosmodrome space facility, killing over 100. Among the dead is Field Marshal Mitrofan Nedelin, whose death is reported to have occurred in a plane crash

    Nedelin catastrophe

    The Nedelin catastrophe or Nedelin disaster, known in Russia as the Catastrophe at Baikonur Cosmodrome (Russian: Катастрофа на Байконуре, romanizedKatastrofa na Baikonure), was a launch pad accident that occurred on 24 October 1960 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Soviet Kazakhstan. As a prototype of the R-16 intercontinental ballistic missile was being prepared for a test flight, an explosion occurred when the second stage engine ignited accidentally, killing an unknown number of military and technical personnel working on the preparations. Despite the magnitude of the disaster, information was suppressed for many years and the Soviet government did not acknowledge the event until 1989. With more than 54 casualties, it is the deadliest disaster in space exploration history. The catastrophe is named for the Chief Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin, who was the head of the R-16 development program and perished in the explosion.

     
  32. Admin2

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    25 October 1983 – Operation Urgent Fury: The United States and its Caribbean allies invade Grenada, six days after Prime Minister Maurice Bishop and several of his supporters are executed in a coup d'état.

    Invasion of Grenada

    • From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.
     
  33. Admin2

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    26 October 1940 – The P-51 Mustang makes its maiden flight.

    North American P-51 Mustang

    The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang is an American long-range, single-seat fighter and fighter-bomber used during World War II and the Korean War, among other conflicts. The Mustang was designed in April 1940 by a team headed by James H. Kindelberger of North American Aviation (NAA) in response to a requirement of the British Purchasing Commission. The commission approached NAA to build Curtiss P-40 fighters under license for the Royal Air Force (RAF). Rather than build an old design from another company, NAA proposed the design and production of a more modern fighter. The prototype NA-73X airframe was rolled out on 9 September 1940, 102 days after the contract was signed, and first flew on 26 October.[5]

    The Mustang was designed to use the Allison V-1710 engine without an export-sensitive turbosupercharger[6] or a multi-stage supercharger, resulting in limited high-altitude performance. The aircraft was first flown operationally and very successfully by the RAF and as a tactical-reconnaissance aircraft and fighter-bomber (Mustang Mk I). In mid 1942, Rolls Royce replaced the Allison with a Rolls-Royce Merlin 65, two-stage intercooled supercharged engine, resulting in a series of development aircraft known as the Mustang X. During testing at Hucknall, it quickly became clear that this dramatically improved the aircraft's performance at altitudes above 15,000 ft (4,600 m) (without sacrificing range).[7] Following receipt of the test results and after further flights by a number of USAAF pilots, the results were so positive that North American began work on converting several aircraft and these were developed into the P-51B/C (Mustang Mk III) model, which became the first long range fighter to be able to compete with the Luftwaffe's fighters.[8] The definitive version, the P-51D, was powered by the Packard V-1650-7, a license-built version of the two-speed, two-stage-supercharged Merlin 66, and was armed with six .50 caliber (12.7 mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns.[9]

    From late 1943, P-51Bs and P-51Cs (supplemented by P-51Ds from mid-1944) were used by the USAAF's Eighth Air Force to escort bombers in raids over Germany, while the RAF's Second Tactical Air Force and the USAAF's Ninth Air Force used the Merlin-powered Mustangs as fighter-bombers, roles in which the Mustang helped ensure Allied air superiority in 1944.[10] The P-51 was also used by Allied air forces in the North African, Mediterranean, Italian, and Pacific theaters. During World War II, Mustang pilots claimed to have destroyed 4,950 enemy aircraft.[a]

    At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang, by then redesignated F-51, was the main fighter of the United States until jet fighters, including North American's F-86 Sabre, took over this role; the Mustang then became a specialized fighter-bomber. Despite the advent of jet fighters, the Mustang remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s. After the Korean War, Mustangs became popular civilian warbirds and air racing aircraft.

    1. ^ P-51 Mustang Fighter, Boeing.
    2. ^ Scutts, Jerry (13 November 1995), Mustang Aces of the Ninth & Fifteenth Air Forces & the RAF (book), Bloomsbury USA, p. 47, ISBN 9781855325838.
    3. ^ Hickman; Kennedy, "World War II: North American P-51 Mustang", Military History, About, archived from the original on 1 July 2014, retrieved 19 June 2014
    4. ^ "North American P-51D Mustang". National Museum of the United States Air Force. 20 April 2015. Archived from the original on 22 November 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
    5. ^ "The North American P-51 Mustang: A "Little Friend" with a Big Impact". The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. 24 May 2020. Retrieved 5 November 2023.
    6. ^ Haight, John M. (1970). American aid to France (1st ed.). New York: Antheneum. pp. 210–222. ISBN 978-1131644110.
    7. ^ Kinzey 1996, p. 57.
    8. ^ Kinzey 1996, p. 56.
    9. ^ Kinzey 1997, pp. 10–13.
    10. ^ Gunston 1984, p. 58.
    11. ^ Tillman 1996, pp. 78–79.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  34. Admin2

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    27 October 2005 – Riots begin in Paris after the deaths of two Muslim teenagers.

    2005 French riots

    A three-week period of riots took place in the suburbs of Paris and other French cities[4][5] in October and November 2005. These riots involved youth in violent attacks, and the burning of cars and public buildings.

    The unrest started on 27 October at Clichy-sous-Bois, where police were investigating a reported break-in at a building site, and a group of local youths scattered in order to avoid interrogation. Three of them hid in an electrical substation where two died from electrocution, resulting in a power blackout (It was not established whether police had suspected these individuals or a different group, wanted on separate charges.). The incident ignited rising tensions about youth unemployment and police harassment in the poorer housing estates, and there followed three weeks of rioting throughout France. A state of emergency was declared on 8 November, later extended for three months.

    The riots resulted in more than 8,000 vehicles being burned by the rioters and more than 2,760 individuals arrested.[6]

    1. ^ "Emeutes de 2005 : cinq ans de prison pour l'agresseur de Le Chenadec". Le Parisien. 20 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
    2. ^ Benoît Hopquin (9 November 2005). "Après la mort de Jean-Claude Irvoas, des habitants affligés". Le Monde.fr. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
    3. ^ "Compte Rendu Detaille Des DEcisions Du Conseil Municipal" (PDF). Grandbesancon.fr. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
    4. ^ Jocelyne Cesari (November 2005). Ethnicity, Islam, and les banlieues: Confusing the Issues
    5. ^ Canet, R; L Pech, M Stewart (November 2008). "France's Burning Issue: Understanding the Urban Riots of November 2005". SSRN 1303514. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
    6. ^ Oren Gross; Fionnuala Ní Aoláin (2006). Law in Times of Crisis: Emergency Powers in Theory and Practice. Cambridge UP. p. 200. ISBN 9781139457750.
     
  35. Admin2

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    28 October 1893 – Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6 in B Minor, Pathétique, receives its première performance in St. Petersburg, only nine days before the composer's death.

    Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

    The Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74, also known as the Pathétique Symphony, is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's final completed symphony, written between February and the end of August 1893. The composer entitled the work "The Passionate Symphony", employing a Russian word, Патетическая (Pateticheskaya), meaning "passionate" or "emotional", which was then translated into French as pathétique, meaning "solemn" or "emotive".

    The composer led the first performance in Saint Petersburg on 28 October [O.S. 16 October] of that year, nine days before his death. The second performance, conducted by Eduard Nápravník, took place 21 days later, at a memorial concert on 18 November [O.S. 6 November].[1][2] It included some minor corrections that Tchaikovsky had made after the premiere, and was thus the first performance of the work in the exact form in which it is known today. The first performance in Moscow was on 16 December [O.S. 4 December], conducted by Vasily Safonov.[3] It was the last of Tchaikovsky's compositions premiered in his lifetime; his very last composition, the single-movement 3rd Piano Concerto, Op. 75, which was completed a short time before his death in October 1893, received a posthumous premiere.

     
  36. Admin2

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    29 October 1886 – The first ticker tape parade takes place in New York City when office workers spontaneously throw ticker tape into the streets as the Statue of Liberty is dedicated.

    Ticker tape parade

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  37. Admin2

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    30 October 1960 – Michael Woodruff performs the first successful kidney transplant in the United Kingdom at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary.

    Kidney transplantation

    Kidney transplant or renal transplant is the organ transplant of a kidney into a patient with end-stage kidney disease (ESRD). Kidney transplant is typically classified as deceased-donor (formerly known as cadaveric) or living-donor transplantation depending on the source of the donor organ. Living-donor kidney transplants are further characterized as genetically related (living-related) or non-related (living-unrelated) transplants, depending on whether a biological relationship exists between the donor and recipient. The first successful kidney transplant was performed in 1954 by a team including Joseph Murray, the recipient’s surgeon, and Hartwell Harrison, surgeon for the donor. Murray was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1990 for this and other work.[1] In 2018, an estimated 95,479 kidney transplants were performed worldwide, 36% of which came from living donors.[2]

    Before receiving a kidney transplant, a person with ESRD must undergo a thorough medical evaluation to make sure that they are healthy enough to undergo transplant surgery. If they are deemed a good candidate, they can be placed on a waiting list to receive a kidney from a deceased donor.[3]: How do I get a kidney from a deceased donor?  Once they are placed on the waiting list, they can receive a new kidney very quickly, or they may have to wait many years; in the United States, the average waiting time is three to five years.[4] During transplant surgery, the new kidney is usually placed in the lower abdomen (belly); the person's two native kidneys are not usually taken out unless there is a medical reason to do so.[3]: What happens during kidney transplant surgery? 

    People with ESRD who receive a kidney transplant generally live longer than people with ESRD who are on dialysis and may have a better quality of life.[3]: What is a kidney transplant?  However, kidney transplant recipients must remain on immunosuppressants (medications to suppress the immune system) for as long as the new kidney is working to prevent their body from rejecting it.[3]: What are anti-rejection medicines?  This long-term immunosuppression puts them at higher risk for infections and cancer.[5] Kidney transplant rejection can be classified as cellular rejection or antibody-mediated rejection. Antibody-mediated rejection can be classified as hyperacute, acute, or chronic, depending on how long after the transplant it occurs. If rejection is suspected, a kidney biopsy should be obtained.[5] It is important to regularly monitor the new kidney's function by measuring serum creatinine and other labs; this should be done at least every three months.[5]

    1. ^ Shrestha B, Haylor J, Raftery A (March 2015). "Historical Perspectives in Kidney Transplantation: An Updated Review". Progress in Transplantation. 25 (1). Sage Publishing: 64–69. doi:10.7182/pit2015789. eISSN 2164-6708. PMID 25758803. S2CID 26032497.
    2. ^ "International Report on Organ Donation And Transplantation Activities: Executive Summary 2018" (PDF). Global Observatory on Donation and Transplantation. ONT/WHO. October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
    3. ^ a b c d "20 Common Kidney Transplant Questions and Answers". National Kidney Foundation. 19 October 2023. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
    4. ^ "The Kidney Transplant Waitlist – What You Need to Know". National Kidney Foundation. 19 October 2023. What is the average wait time for a kidney transplant?. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
    5. ^ a b c Voora S, Adey DB (June 2019). "Management of Kidney Transplant Recipients by General Nephrologists: Core Curriculum 2019". American Journal of Kidney Diseases (Core curriculum). 73 (6): 866–879. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2019.01.031. PMID 30981567.
     
  38. Admin2

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    31 October 1922 – Benito Mussolini is made Prime Minister of Italy

    Benito Mussolini

    Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (UK: /ˌmʊsəˈlni, ˌmʌs-/, US: /ˌms-/, Italian: [beˈniːto aˈmilkare anˈdrɛːa mussoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian dictator who founded and led the National Fascist Party (PNF). He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 1943, as well as Duce of Italian fascism from the establishment of the Italian Fasces of Combat in 1919 until his summary execution in 1945 by Italian partisans. As dictator of Italy and principal founder of fascism, Mussolini inspired and supported the international spread of fascist movements during the inter-war period.

    Mussolini was originally a socialist politician and a journalist at the Avanti! newspaper. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but he was expelled from the PSI for advocating military intervention in World War I, in opposition to the party's stance on neutrality. In 1914, Mussolini founded a newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, and served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on Italian nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement which came to oppose egalitarianism and class conflict, instead advocating "revolutionary nationalism" transcending class lines. On 31 October 1922, following the March on Rome (28–30 October), Mussolini was appointed prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III, becoming the youngest individual to hold the office up to that time. After removing all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labour strikes, Mussolini and his followers consolidated power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship. Within five years, Mussolini established dictatorial authority by both legal and illegal means and aspired to create a totalitarian state. In 1929, Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See to establish Vatican City.

    Mussolini's foreign policy was based on the fascist doctrine of "Spazio vitale" (trans: "living space"); which aimed to expand Italian possessions and the fascist sphere of influence. In 1923, Mussolini ordered the bombing of Corfu over an incident with Greece. That same year, Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Senussi war which lasted until 1932 and culminated in the Libyan genocide. He also annexed the city of Fiume into Italy after the Treaty of Rome in 1924 with Yugoslavia. Through the Tirana treaties, Mussolini turned Albania into an Italian protectorate. In 1936, Ethiopia was conquered following the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and merged into Italian East Africa (AOI) with Eritrea and Somalia. In 1939, Italian forces annexed Albania. Between 1936 and 1939, Mussolini ordered an intervention in Spain in favour of Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. At the same time, Mussolini initially tried to retain much of the Versailles status quo by sending troops to the Brenner Pass to delay Hitler's Anschluss, and taking part in the Treaty of Lausanne, the Lytton Report, the Four-Power Pact and the Stresa Front. However, he ultimately alienated the democratic powers as tensions grew in the League of Nations, which he left in 1937. Now hostile to France and Britain, Italy formed the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

    The wars of the 1930s, although victorious, had cost Italy enormous resources, leaving the country unprepared for the upcoming Second World War. Therefore, when Poland was invaded on 1 September 1939, Mussolini declared Italy's non-belligerence. However, on 10 June 1940, believing that Allied defeat was imminent, he decided to join the war on the side of Germany to share the potential spoils of victory. But after three more years of world war, the tide of the conflict turned in favour of the Allies. Following the invasion of Sicily and a motion of no confidence by the Grand Council of Fascism, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini as head of government and placed him in custody (25 July 1943). After the king agreed to an armistice with the Allies, on 12 September 1943 Mussolini was rescued from captivity in the Gran Sasso raid by German paratroopers and Waffen-SS commandos. After meeting with his fallen ally, Hitler made Mussolini the figurehead of a puppet state in German-occupied northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic (Salò Republic), which served as a collaborationist regime of the Germans in their fight against the Allies, now including the Kingdom of Italy, and the Italian resistance.

    In late April 1945, with Allied victory imminent, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to flee to Switzerland, but they were captured by Italian communist partisans and summarily executed on 28 April near Lake Como, and their bodies were strung up by the heels outside a service station in Milan.

     
  39. Admin2

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    1 November 1814 – Congress of Vienna opens to re-draw the European political map after the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars.

    Congress of Vienna

    The national boundaries within Europe agreed upon by the Congress of Vienna
    Frontispiece of the Acts of the Congress of Vienna

    The Congress of Vienna[a] of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.[1] Participants were representatives of all European powers and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.

    The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican, liberal, and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended the constitutional order of the European ancien régime, and which continued to threaten it.

    At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia, partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while the other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania, most of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw. Austria gained much of northern Italy. Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, which had been created just months before from formerly Austrian territory, and would serve as a buffer between the German Confederation and France.

    The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

    Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements,[2] and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised the Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century.


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  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 November 1966 – The Cuban Adjustment Act comes into force, allowing 123,000 Cubans the opportunity to apply for permanent residence in the United States.

    Cuban Adjustment Act

    The Cuban Adjustment Act (Spanish: Ley de Ajuste Cubano), Public Law 89-732, is a United States federal law enacted on November 2, 1966. Passed by the 89th United States Congress and signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson, the law applies to any native or citizen of Cuba who has been inspected and admitted or paroled into the United States after January 1, 1959 and has been physically present for at least one year, and is admissible to the United States as a permanent resident.

     

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