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1 July 1863 American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins.

Battle of Gettysburg

1863 battle of the American Civil War

For other uses, see Battle of Gettysburg (disambiguation).

The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ ^ⓘ)^[14] was a three-day battle in the American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate forces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days.^[15]

In the Battle of Gettysburg, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the north and forcing his retreat.^{[fn 1][16]}

After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the north, known as the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia and hoped to influence northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Major General Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.

Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.^[17] On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.

On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by around 12,000 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge. The charge was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army. Setting out on the Fourth of July, Lee led his army on the torturous retreat from the north. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, the most costly in US history.

On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.

1. ^ Coddington, p. 573. See the discussion regarding historians' judgment on whether Gettysburg should be considered a decisive victory.
2. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, pages 155–168 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 283–291 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 151 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Coddington, p. 673, references the official number of the Union Army forces but says the number could have been in the "neighborhood" of 115,000. Busey and Martin, p. 125: "Engaged strength" at the battle was 93,921. Eicher, p. 503, gives a similar number of 93,500. Sears, p. 539 quotes the official number of just over 104,000 but with reinforcements of another 8,000 men about to arrive.
6. ^ "Gettysburg Staff Ride" (PDF). army.mil. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
7. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, state that Confederate "engaged strength" at the battle was 71,699; McPherson, p. 648, lists the Confederate strength at the start of the campaign as 75,000, while Eicher, p. 503 gives a lower number of 70,200. Noting that Confederate returns often did not include officers, Coddington, p. 676 states that estimated Confederate strength of 75,000 is "a conservative one". Confederate Captain John Esten Cooke in A Life of Gen. Robert E. Lee, New York: D. Appleton, 1871, p. 328, gives the number of the entire Confederate force "at about eighty thousand". Sears, p. 149 states that eyewitnesses observed the Confederate force to be about 100,000 but, although Meade used this in making his battle plans, it was an overcount of about 20 percent.
8. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 187 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 125.
10. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, cite 23,231 total (4,708 killed;12,693 wounded;5,830 captured/missing).
    See the section on casualties for a discussion of alternative Confederate casualty estimates, which have been cited as high as 28,000.
11. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 338–346 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
12. ^ Wynstra, p. 81
13. ^ Symonds, pp. 53, 57
14. ^ Robert D. Quigley, Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860s (Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993), p. 68. ISBN 0-9637745-0-6.
15. ^ "Gettysburg" at Battlefields
16. ^ Rawley, p. 147; Sauers, p. 827; Gallagher, Lee and His Army, p. 83; McPherson, p. 665; Eicher, p. 550. Gallagher and McPherson cite the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Eicher uses the arguably related expression, "High-water mark of the Confederacy".
17. ^ Eicher, David J. (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 515–517, ISBN 978-0-684-84944-7

Cite error: There are <ref group=fn> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=fn}} template (see the help page).

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2 July 2001 The AbioCor self-contained artificial heart is first implanted.

AbioCor

Discontinued artificial heart system

AbioCor was a total artificial heart (TAH) developed by the Massachusetts-based company AbioMed. It was fully implantable within a patient, due to a combination of advances in miniaturization, biosensors, plastics and energy transfer. The AbioCor ran on a rechargeable source of power. The internal battery was charged by a transcutaneous energy transmission (TET) system, meaning that no wires or tubes penetrated the skin, reducing the risk of infection. However, because of its size, this heart was only compatible with men who had a large frame. It had a product life expectancy of 18 months.^{[1][2][3][4][5]}

AbioCor was surgically introduced into 15 total patients, 14 of them during a clinical trial and one after FDA approval. However, due to insufficient evidence of its efficacy, AbioMed abandoned further development of the product.^[6][7][8]

1. ^ "National Medical Policy - NMP188" (PDF). HealthNet. September 2015. p. 17. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
2. ^ "Medical Policy Manual - Policy No: 52" (PDF). Regence. December 2015. p. 22. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
3. ^ "Heart Assist Devices - AbioCor Implantable". Texas Heart Institute. Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
4. ^ "Product Details". AbioMed. 2007. Archived from the original on May 21, 2007. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
5. ^ Dowling, R.D.; Etoch, S.W.; Stevens, K.A.; Johnson, A.C.; Gray Jr., L.A. (2001). "Current status of the AbioCor implantable replacement heart". The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 71 (3): S147–S149. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(00)02615-1. PMID 11265850.
6. ^ Leprince, P. (October 6, 2015). "Total artificial heart: What's new?" (PDF). Daily News - EACTS. European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 15, 2016. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
7. ^ Palomino, J. (November 4, 2015). Lopatto, E.; Zelenko, M. (eds.). "The Heart is Just a Pump: Inside the 50-year quest to build a mechanical organ". The Verge. Vox Media, Inc. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
8. ^ "7 Things About Artificial Hearts That You Should Know". SynCardia Systems, Inc. September 12, 2014. Retrieved March 15, 2016.

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3 July 1996 Stone of Scone is returned to Scotland.

Stone of Scone

Ancient Scottish coronation artefact

The Stone of Scone (/ˈskuːn/; Scottish Gaelic: An Lia Fàil; Scots: Stane o Scone), also known as the Stone of Destiny, is an oblong block of red sandstone that was used in the coronation of Scottish monarchs until the 13th century, and thereafter in the coronation of English and later British monarchs. The Stone measures 26 by 16.7 by 10.5 inches (66 cm × 42 cm × 27 cm) and weighs approximately 335 lb (152 kg). A cross is roughly incised on one surface, and an iron ring at each end aids with transport.^[1] Monarchs sat on the Stone of Scone itself until a wooden platform was added to the Coronation Chair in the 17th century.^[2]

The artefact was originally kept at the now-ruined Scone Abbey in Scone, near Perth. In 1296, the forces of King Edward I of England captured it during Edward's invasion of Scotland. The Stone was subsequently used in the coronation of English monarchs and British monarchs for over 500 years.

In 1996, the stone was returned to Scotland, and kept in Edinburgh Castle with the Honours of Scotland. The stone remains property of the Crown and is transported to London for use at coronations.^[3] Since March 2024 it has been on permanent public display in Perth.

1. ^ "The stone of Destiny". English Monarchs. www.englishmonarcs.co.uk. 2004–2005. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
2. ^ James Yorke (17 August 2013). "Review of The Coronation Chair by Warwick Rodwell". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016.
3. ^ "Stone of Destiny". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 280. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 3 July 1996. col. 973.

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4 July 2012 The discovery of particles consistent with the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider is announced at CERN.

Higgs boson

Elementary particle involved with rest mass

"God Particle" redirects here. For other uses, see The God Particle (disambiguation).

The Higgs boson, sometimes called the Higgs particle,^[9][10] is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field,^[11][12] one of the fields in particle physics theory.^[12] In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a massive scalar boson with zero spin, even (positive) parity, no electric charge, and no colour charge that couples to (interacts with) mass.^[13] It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately upon generation.

The Higgs field is a scalar field with two neutral and two electrically charged components that form a complex doublet of the weak isospin SU(2) symmetry. Its "Sombrero potential" leads it to take a nonzero value everywhere (including otherwise empty space), which breaks the weak isospin symmetry of the electroweak interaction and, via the Higgs mechanism, gives a rest mass to all massive elementary particles of the Standard Model, including the Higgs boson itself.

Both the field and the boson are named after physicist Peter Higgs, who in 1964, along with five other scientists in three teams, proposed the Higgs mechanism, a way for some particles to acquire mass. (All fundamental particles known at the time^[c] should be massless at very high energies, but fully explaining how some particles gain mass at lower energies had been extremely difficult.) If these ideas were correct, a particle known as a scalar boson should also exist (with certain properties). This particle was called the Higgs boson and could be used to test whether the Higgs field was the correct explanation.

After a 40-year search, a subatomic particle with the expected properties was discovered in 2012 by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. The new particle was subsequently confirmed to match the expected properties of a Higgs boson. Physicists from two of the three teams, Peter Higgs and François Englert, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013 for their theoretical predictions. Although Higgs's name has come to be associated with this theory, several researchers between about 1960 and 1972 independently developed different parts of it.

In the media, the Higgs boson is sometimes called the "God particle" after the 1993 book The God Particle by Nobel Laureate Leon Lederman.^[14] The name has been criticised by physicists,^[15][16] including Higgs.^[17]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "ATLAS sets record precision on Higgs boson's mass". 21 July 2023. Archived from the original on 22 July 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
2. ^ Dittmaier; Mariotti; Passarino; Tanaka; Alekhin; Alwall; Bagnaschi; Banfi; et al. (LHC Higgs Cross Section Working Group) (2012). Handbook of LHC Higgs Cross Sections: 2. Differential Distributions (Report). CERN Report 2 (Tables A.1–A.20). Vol. 1201. p. 3084. arXiv:1201.3084. Bibcode:2012arXiv1201.3084L. doi:10.5170/CERN-2012-002. S2CID 119287417.
3. ^ "Life of the Higgs boson" (Press release). CMS Collaboration. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
4. ^ ^{a b} "ATLAS finds evidence of a rare Higgs boson decay" (Press release). CERN. 8 February 2021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
5. ^ ATLAS collaboration (2018). "Observation of H→bb decays and VH production with the ATLAS detector". Physics Letters B. 786: 59–86. arXiv:1808.08238. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2018.09.013. S2CID 53658301.
6. ^ CMS collaboration (2018). "Observation of Higgs boson decay to bottom quarks". Physical Review Letters. 121 (12): 121801. arXiv:1808.08242. Bibcode:2018PhRvL.121l1801S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.121801. PMID 30296133. S2CID 118901756.
7. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference CERN March 2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ ^{a b} CMS Collaboration (2017). "Constraints on anomalous Higgs boson couplings using production and decay information in the four-lepton final state". Physics Letters B. 775 (2017): 1–24. arXiv:1707.00541. Bibcode:2017PhLB..775....1S. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2017.10.021. S2CID 3221363.
9. ^ Goulette, Marc (15 August 2012). "What should we know about the Higgs particle?" (blog). Atlas Experiment / CERN. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
10. ^ "Getting to know the Higgs particle: New discoveries!" (Press release). Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
11. ^ Onyisi, P. (23 October 2012). "Higgs boson FAQ". University of Texas ATLAS group. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
12. ^ ^{a b} Strassler, M. (12 October 2012). "The Higgs FAQ 2.0". ProfMattStrassler.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2013. [Q] Why do particle physicists care so much about the Higgs particle?
    [A] Well, actually, they don't. What they really care about is the Higgs field, because it is so important. [emphasis in original]
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference when higgs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Lederman, L.M. (1993). The God Particle. Bantam Doubleday Dell. ISBN 0-385-31211-3.
15. ^ Sample, Ian (29 May 2009). "Anything but the God particle". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 July 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
16. ^ Evans, R. (14 December 2011). "The Higgs boson: Why scientists hate that you call it the 'God particle'". National Post. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
17. ^ Key scientist sure "God particle" will be found soon Archived 23 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Reuters news story. 7 April 2008.

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5 July 1934 Bloody Thursday: Police open fire on striking longshoremen in San Francisco.

1934 West Coast waterfront strike

Labor strike by longshoremen in California, Oregon, and Washington

The 1934 West Coast waterfront strike (also known as the 1934 West Coast longshoremen's strike, as well as a number of variations on these names) lasted 83 days, and began on May 9, 1934, when longshoremen in every US West Coast port walked out. Organized by the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), the strike peaked with the death of two workers on "Bloody Thursday" and the subsequent San Francisco General Strike, which stopped all work in the major port city for four days and led ultimately to the settlement of the West Coast Longshoremen's Strike.^[3]

The result of the strike was the unionization of all of the West Coast ports of the United States. The San Francisco General Strike of 1934, along with the Toledo Auto-Lite Strike of 1934 led by the American Workers Party and the Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934 led by the Communist League of America, were catalysts for the rise of industrial unionism in the 1930s, much of which was organized through the Congress of Industrial Organizations.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} Preis, Art (1974). Labor's giant step: twenty years of the CIO. Pathfinder Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 9780873480246.
2. ^ Kimeldorf, Howard (1988). Reds or Rackets?: The Making of Radical and Conservative Unions on the Waterfront. University of California Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780520912779.
3. ^ David F. Selvin, A terrible anger: The 1934 waterfront and general strikes in San Francisco (Wayne State University Press, 1996).

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6 July 1940 Story Bridge, a major landmark in Brisbane, as well as Australia's longest cantilever bridge is formally opened.

Story Bridge

Steel cantilever bridge in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Story Bridge

The Story Bridge is a heritage-listed steel cantilever bridge spanning the Brisbane River that carries vehicular, bicycle and pedestrian traffic between the northern and the southern suburbs of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It is the longest cantilever bridge in Australia.^[1]

The road across the bridge is named Bradfield Highway. The bridge connects Fortitude Valley to Kangaroo Point. The Story Bridge opened in 1940 and was tolled until 1947. It is named after prominent public servant John Douglas Story.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} Moore, Tony (22 May 2023). "New walkway to link Story Bridge to city heart". Brisbane Times. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.

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7 July 1941 The American occupation of Iceland replaces the British occupation.

Occupation of Iceland

Redirect to:

• Allied occupation of Iceland

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8 July 1947 Reports are broadcast that a UFO crash landed in Roswell, New Mexico in what became known as the Roswell UFO incident.

Roswell UFO incident

Redirect to:

• Roswell incident

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11 July 1922 The Hollywood Bowl opens.

Hollywood Bowl

Amphitheater in Los Angeles, California

For the bowling operator, see Hollywood Bowl Group. For the college football bowl game, see LA Bowl.

The Hollywood Bowl is an amphitheatre in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, California, United States. It was named one of the 10 best live music venues in the United States by Rolling Stone magazine in 2018.^[1] It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2023.^[2]

The Hollywood Bowl is known for its distinctive bandshell, originally a set of concentric arches that graced the site from 1929 through 2003, before being replaced with a larger one to begin the 2004 season. The shell is set against the backdrop of the Hollywood Hills and the famous Hollywood Sign to the northeast.

The "bowl" refers to the shape of the concave hillside into which the amphitheater is carved. The Bowl is owned by the County of Los Angeles and is the home of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, the summer home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the host venue for hundreds of musical events each year.^{[3][citation needed]}

Located on North Highland Avenue, it is north of Hollywood Boulevard and approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Hollywood/Highland Metro Rail station. It is adjacent to U.S. Route 101.

1. ^ Staff (December 13, 2018). "10 Best Live Music Venues in America. From big rooms to intimate spaces, here's a selection of some of the country's best live music spots". Rolling Stone. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
2. ^ "WEEKLY LIST OF ACTIONS TAKEN ON PROPERTIES: 12/21/2023 THROUGH 12/29/2023". National Park Service. Retrieved January 12, 2024.
3. ^ "Hollywood Bowl History". Hollywood Bowl. Retrieved March 6, 2019.

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12 July 1962 The Rolling Stones perform their first concert, at the Marquee Club in London.

The Rolling Stones

English rock band

This article is about the band. For the magazine, see Rolling Stone. For other uses, see Rolling Stone (disambiguation).

The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962. Active across seven decades, they are one of the most popular and enduring bands of the rock era. In the early 1960s, the band pioneered the gritty, rhythmically driven sound that came to define hard rock. Their first stable line-up consisted of vocalist Mick Jagger, guitarist Keith Richards, multi-instrumentalist Brian Jones, bassist Bill Wyman, and drummer Charlie Watts. During their early years, Jones was the primary leader of the band. After Andrew Loog Oldham became the group's manager in 1963, he encouraged them to write their own songs. The Jagger–Richards partnership became the band's primary songwriting and creative force.

Rooted in blues and early rock and roll, the Rolling Stones started out playing covers and were at the forefront of the British Invasion in 1964, becoming identified with the youthful counterculture of the 1960s. They then found greater success with their own material, as "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction", "Get Off of My Cloud" (both 1965), and "Paint It Black" (1966) became international number-one hits. Aftermath (1966), their first entirely original album, is often considered to be the most important of their early albums. In 1967, they had the double-sided hit "Ruby Tuesday"/"Let's Spend the Night Together" and experimented with psychedelic rock on Their Satanic Majesties Request. By the end of the 1960s, they had returned to their rhythm and blues-based rock sound, with hit singles "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1968) and "Honky Tonk Women" (1969), and albums Beggars Banquet (1968), featuring "Sympathy for the Devil" and "Street Fighting Man", and Let It Bleed (1969), featuring "You Can't Always Get What You Want" and "Gimme Shelter".

Jones left the band shortly before his death in 1969, having been replaced by guitarist Mick Taylor. That year they were first introduced on stage as "the greatest rock and roll band in the world". Sticky Fingers (1971), which yielded "Brown Sugar" and "Wild Horses" and included the first usage of their tongue and lips logo, was their first of eight consecutive number-one studio albums in the US. It was followed by Exile on Main St. (1972), featuring "Tumbling Dice" and "Happy", and Goats Head Soup (1973), featuring "Angie". Taylor left the band at the end of 1974, and was replaced by Ronnie Wood. The band released Some Girls in 1978, featuring "Miss You", and Tattoo You in 1981, featuring "Start Me Up". Steel Wheels (1989) was widely considered a comeback album and was followed by Voodoo Lounge (1994). Both releases were promoted by large stadium and arena tours, as the Stones continued to be a huge concert attraction; by 2007, they had recorded the all-time highest-grossing concert tour three times, and they were the highest-earning live act of 2021. Following Wyman's departure in 1993, the band continued as a four-piece core, with Darryl Jones becoming their regular bassist, and then as a three-piece core following Watts' death in 2021, with Steve Jordan becoming their regular drummer. Hackney Diamonds, the band's first new album of original material in 18 years, was released in October 2023, becoming their fourteenth UK number-one album.

The Rolling Stones' estimated record sales of more than 250 million make them one of the best-selling music artists of all time. They have won three Grammy Awards and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004. Billboard and Rolling Stone have ranked them as one of the greatest artists of all time.

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13 July 1249 Coronation of Alexander III as King of Scots.

Alexander III of Scotland

King of Scotland from 1249 to 1286

Alexander III (Medieval Scottish Gaelic: Alaxandair mac Alaxandair; Modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Alasdair; 4 September 1241 – 19 March 1286) was King of Scots from 1249 until his death. He concluded the Treaty of Perth, by which Scotland acquired sovereignty over the Western Isles and the Isle of Man. His heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway, died before she could be crowned.

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14 July 1865 First ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper and party, four of whom die on the descent.

First ascent of the Matterhorn

1865 mountaineering expedition in the Pennine Alps

The first ascent of the Matterhorn was a mountaineering expedition made by Edward Whymper, Lord Francis Douglas, Charles Hudson, Douglas Hadow, Michel Croz, and two Zermatt guides, Peter Taugwalder and his son of the same name, on 14 July 1865. Douglas, Hudson, Hadow and Croz were killed on the descent when Hadow slipped and pulled the other three with him down the north face. Whymper and the Taugwalder guides, who survived, were later accused of having cut the rope below to ensure that they were not dragged down with the others, but the subsequent inquiry found no evidence of this and they were acquitted.

The ascent followed a long series of usually separate attempts by Edward Whymper and Jean-Antoine Carrel to reach the summit. Carrel's group had been 200 m below the summit on the Italian side when Croz and Whymper summited. The climbers from Valtournenche withdrew deflated, but three days later Carrel and Jean-Baptiste Bich reached the summit without incident. The Matterhorn was the last great Alpine peak to be climbed and its first ascent marked the end of the golden age of alpinism.^[1][2][3]

1. ^ Messner, Reinhold (September 2001). The big walls: from the North Face of the Eiger to the South Face of Dhaulagiri. The Mountaineers Books. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-89886-844-9. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
2. ^ The first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865
3. ^ Cliffhanger at the top of the world

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15 July 2006 Twitter is launched, becoming one of the largest social media platforms in the world.

Twitter

American social networking service

This article is about the social networking service. For the former parent company, see Twitter, Inc.

X, commonly referred to by its former name Twitter, is a social media website based in the United States. With over 500 million users, it is one of the world's largest social networks and the fifth-most visited website in the world.^[4][5] Users can share text messages, images, and videos as "tweets".^[6] X also includes direct messaging, video and audio calling, bookmarks, lists and communities, and Spaces, a social audio feature. Users can vote on context added by approved users using the Community Notes feature.

The service is owned by the American company X Corp., the successor of Twitter, Inc. Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams, and launched in July of that year. Twitter grew quickly, and by 2012^[update], more than 100 million users produced 340 million tweets per day.^[7] Twitter, Inc., was based in San Francisco, California, and had more than 25 offices around the world.^[8] A signature characteristic of the service is that posts are required to be brief (originally 140 characters, later expanded to 280 in 2017).^[9] The majority of tweets are produced by a minority of users.^[10][11] In 2020, it was estimated that approximately 48 million accounts (15% of all accounts) were not genuine people.^[12]

In October 2022, billionaire Elon Musk acquired Twitter for US$44 billion, gaining control of the platform and becoming the chief executive officer (CEO).^{[13][14][15][16]} Since the acquisition, the platform has been criticized for enabling the increased spread of disinformation,^[17][18][19] hate speech^[20][21][22] (antisemitism,^[23][24] homophobia, transphobia)^[25][26] and child pornography.^[27] Linda Yaccarino succeeded Musk as CEO on June 5, 2023, with Musk remaining as the chairman and the chief technology officer.^[28][29][30] In July 2023, Musk announced that Twitter would be rebranded to X and that the bird logo, along with the Twitter name, would be retired.^[31][32] Although the service is now called X, the primary domain name 'twitter.com' remains in place as of April 2024^[update], with the 'x.com' URL redirecting to that address. In December 2023, Fidelity estimated the value of the company to be down 71.5 percent from its purchase price.^[33]

1. ^ Ashworth, Louis (July 24, 2023). "The logo of X, formerly Twitter, wasn't actually stolen". Financial Times. Archived from the original on July 24, 2023. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
2. ^ Musk, Elon Reeve [@elonmusk] (July 24, 2023). "𝕏" (Tweet). Retrieved July 30, 2023 – via Twitter.
3. ^ Kolodny, Lora (September 18, 2023). "Elon Musk says Twitter, now X, is moving to monthly subscription fees and has 550 million users". CNBC. Archived from the original on September 18, 2023. Retrieved September 19, 2023.
4. ^ "Top Websites Ranking". Similarweb. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved December 1, 2021.
5. ^ "twitter.com". Similarweb.com. Archived from the original on November 10, 2023. Retrieved November 8, 2023.
6. ^ Conger, Kate (August 3, 2023). "So What Do We Call Twitter Now Anyway?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 12, 2023. Retrieved August 29, 2023.
7. ^ "Twitter turns six". Twitter. March 21, 2012. Archived from the original on February 6, 2017. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
8. ^ "Company: "About Twitter"". Archived from the original on April 3, 2016. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Twitter_500 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Carlson, Nicholas (June 2, 2009). "Stunning New Numbers on Who Uses Twitter". Business Insider. Archived from the original on February 5, 2021. Retrieved January 9, 2021.
11. ^ Wojcik, Stefan; Hughes, Adam (April 24, 2019). "Sizing Up Twitter Users". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on October 29, 2019. Retrieved April 25, 2019.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Rodriguez was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Isaac, Mike; Hirsch, Lauren (April 25, 2022). "Musk's deal for Twitter is worth about $44 billion". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on April 26, 2022. Retrieved April 26, 2022.
14. ^ Feiner, Lauren (April 25, 2022). "Twitter accepts Elon Musk's buyout deal". CNBC. Archived from the original on April 26, 2022. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
15. ^ Kay, Grace; Hays, Kali. "Elon Musk is officially Twitter's new owner, and he's firing executives already". Business Insider. Archived from the original on October 28, 2022. Retrieved October 28, 2022.
16. ^ Olmstead, Todd (October 28, 2022). "Twitter Purchased by Elon Musk: A Timeline of How It Happened". WSJ. Archived from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved November 7, 2022.
17. ^ Milmo, Dan (October 9, 2023). "X criticised for enabling spread of Israel-Hamas disinformation". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on October 10, 2023. Retrieved October 10, 2023.
18. ^ Goswami, Rohan (October 9, 2023). "X, formerly Twitter, amplifies disinformation amid the Israel-Hamas conflict". CNBC. Archived from the original on October 9, 2023. Retrieved October 10, 2023.
19. ^ Lyngaas, Sean; O'Sullivan, Donie; Duffy, Clare (October 9, 2023). "Elon Musk's X adds to fog of war at outset of Israel-Hamas conflict". CNN. Archived from the original on October 10, 2023. Retrieved October 10, 2023.
20. ^ Sato, Mia (December 2, 2022). "Hate speech is soaring on Twitter under Elon Musk, report finds". The Verge. Archived from the original on March 19, 2023. Retrieved April 13, 2023.
21. ^ "New Data Suggests that Hate Speech is on the Rise on Twitter 2.0". Social Media Today. Archived from the original on September 25, 2023. Retrieved April 13, 2023.
22. ^ Frenkel, Sheera; Conger, Kate (December 2, 2022). "Hate Speech's Rise on Twitter Is Unprecedented, Researchers Find". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 16, 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
23. ^ Kolodny, Lora (November 16, 2023). "Elon Musk boosts antisemitic tweet, claims ADL and other groups push 'anti-white' messaging". CNBC. Archived from the original on November 20, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
24. ^ Gangitano, Alex (November 17, 2023). "White House blasts Elon Musk's 'unacceptable' antisemitic tweet". The Hill. Archived from the original on November 17, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
25. ^ "Elon Musk promotes anti-trans content as hate speech surges on his far-right platform". The Independent. June 5, 2023. Archived from the original on August 7, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
26. ^ Yang, Angela (April 18, 2023). "Twitter quietly changes its hateful conduct policy to remove standing protections for its transgender users". NBC News. Archived from the original on April 19, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
27. ^ "On Musk's Twitter, users looking to sell and trade child sex abuse material are still easily found". NBC News. January 6, 2023. Archived from the original on February 13, 2024. Retrieved February 13, 2024.
28. ^ Frier, Sarah (June 5, 2023). "Twitter's New CEO Linda Yaccarino Has First Day in the Role". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on November 8, 2023. Retrieved June 6, 2023.
29. ^ Miller, Monica (December 21, 2022). "Elon Musk to quit as Twitter CEO when replacement found". BBC News. Archived from the original on March 17, 2023. Retrieved December 21, 2022.
30. ^ "Twitter's New CEO Linda Yaccarino Has First Day in the Role". Bloomberg.com. June 6, 2023. Archived from the original on June 26, 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
31. ^ Valinsky, Jordan (July 24, 2023). "Twitter X logo: Elon Musk rebrands social media platform". CNN Business. Archived from the original on October 3, 2023. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
32. ^ "Elon Musk reveals rebranding of Twitter as X - and what he wants us to now call a tweet". Sky News. Archived from the original on August 1, 2023. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
33. ^ Primack, Dan (December 31, 2023). "Elon Musk's X gets another valuation cut from Fidelity". Axios. Archived from the original on December 31, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2023.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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16 July 622 The beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Islamic calendar

Lunar calendar used by Muslims

This article is about the Hijri calendar based on lunar observation. For the solar calendar whose first year is fixed to the Hijra, see Solar Hijri calendar. For the rule-based Hijri calendar, see Tabular Islamic calendar.

"Crescent moon of Islam" redirects here. For the symbol, see Star and crescent.

The Hijri calendar (Arabic: ٱلتَّقْوِيم ٱلْهِجْرِيّ, romanized: al-taqwīm al-hijrī), or Arabic calendar also known in English as the Muslim calendar and Islamic calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine the proper days of Islamic holidays and rituals, such as the annual fasting and the annual season for the great pilgrimage. In almost all countries where the predominant religion is Islam, the civil calendar is the Gregorian calendar, with Syriac month-names used in the Levant and Mesopotamia (Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine) but the religious calendar is the Hijri one.

This calendar enumerates the Hijri era, whose epoch was established as the Islamic New Year in 622 CE.^[1] During that year, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah), an event commemorated as the Hijrah. In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH (Latin: Anno Hegirae, lit. 'In the year of the Hijrah').^[a] In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H^[2] from its Arabic form (سَنَة هِجْرِيَّة, abbreviated ھ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are denoted as BH ("Before the Hijra").^[3]

Since 19 July 2023 CE, the current Islamic year is 1445 AH. In the Gregorian calendar reckoning, 1445 AH runs from 19 July 2023 to approximately 7 July 2024.^[4][5][b]

1. ^ Paul Lunde. "The Beginning of Hijri calendar". Saudi Aramco World Magazine. No. November/December 2005. Archived from the original on 1 January 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
2. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery. "Hidjra". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
3. ^ Hijri Calendar, Government of Sharjah, archived from the original on 2 February 2017, retrieved 21 January 2017.
4. ^ "Important dates in Islamic Calendar in the Year 2023". Al-Habib.info. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
5. ^ "Important dates in Islamic Calendar in the Year 2024". Al-Habib.info. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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17 July 1984 The national drinking age in the United States was changed from 18 to 21.

National Minimum Drinking Age Act

1984 U.S. law which indirectly raised the nationwide minimum drinking age to 21

This article is about the U.S. federal law. For other meanings, see legal drinking age.

The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 (23 U.S.C. § 158) was passed by the United States Congress and was later signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on July 17, 1984.^[1][2][3] The act would punish any state that allowed persons under 21 years to purchase alcoholic beverages by reducing its annual federal highway apportionment by 10 percent. The law was later amended, lowering the penalty to 8 percent from fiscal year 2012 and beyond.^[4]

Despite its name, this act did not outlaw the consumption of alcoholic beverages by those under 21 years of age, just their purchase or public possession. However, Alabama, Arkansas, Idaho, New Hampshire, and West Virginia, extended the law into an outright ban. The minimum purchase and drinking ages is a state law, and most states still permit "underage" consumption of alcohol in some circumstances. In some states, no restriction on private consumption is made, while in other states, consumption is only allowed in specific locations, in the presence of consenting and supervising family members, as in the states of Colorado, Maryland, Montana, New York, Texas, Oregon, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Some states even allow persons under 21 years of age to drink alcohol in public places, such as in Ohio, Texas, Massachusetts and Louisiana as long as the parent or guardian consents to it and is the one that buys the alcohol and is at least 21 years old. The act also does not seek to criminalize alcohol consumption during religious occasions (e.g., communion wines, Kiddush).

The act was expressly upheld as constitutional in 1987 by the United States Supreme Court in South Dakota v. Dole.

1. ^ "Law signed to lift drinking age". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. (New York Times). July 18, 1984. p. 1.
2. ^ "Reagan signs drinking age into law". Lewiston Morning Tribune. Idaho. Associated Press. July 18, 1984. p. 1A.
3. ^ Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T (July 17, 1984). "Ronald Reagan: 'Remarks on Signing a National Minimum Drinking Age Bill'". The American Presidency Project. University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved February 14, 2023.
4. ^ "Title 23 of the United States Code, Highways" (PDF), Federal Highway Administration, pp. 61–66

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18 July 1870 The First Vatican Council decrees the dogma of papal infallibility.

Papal infallibility

Dogma of the Catholic Church

Papal infallibility is a dogma of the Catholic Church which states that, in virtue of the promise of Jesus to Peter, the Pope when he speaks ex cathedra is preserved from the possibility of error on doctrine "initially given to the apostolic Church and handed down in Scripture and tradition".^[1] It does not mean that the pope cannot sin or otherwise err in some capacity, though he is prevented by the assistance of the Holy Spirit from issuing heretical teaching even in his non-infallible Magisterium, as a corollary of indefectibility.^[2] This doctrine, defined dogmatically at the First Vatican Council of 1869–1870 in the document Pastor aeternus, is claimed to have existed in medieval theology and to have been the majority opinion at the time of the Counter-Reformation.^[3]

The doctrine of infallibility relies on one of the cornerstones of Catholic dogma, that of papal supremacy, whereby the authority of the pope is the ruling agent as to what are accepted as formal beliefs in the Catholic Church.^[4] The use of this power is referred to as speaking ex cathedra.^[5] "Any doctrine 'of faith or morals' issued by the pope in his capacity as successor to St. Peter, speaking as pastor and teacher of the Church Universal [Ecclesia Catholica], from the seat of his episcopal authority in Rome, and meant to be believed 'by the universal church,' has the special status of an ex cathedra statement. Vatican Council I in 1870 declared that any such ex cathedra doctrines have the character of infallibility (session 4, Constitution on the Church 4)."^[6]

1. ^ "Theological Studies – A journal of academic theology" (PDF). Ts.mu.edu. 30 November 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
2. ^ Engber, Daniel (18 September 2006). "How infallible is the pope?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
3. ^ Brian Gogan (1982). The Common Corps of Christendom: Ecclesiological Themes in the Writings of Sir Thomas More. BRILL. p. 33. ISBN 9004065083. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
4. ^ Erwin Fahlbusch et al. The encyclopedia of Christianity Eradman Books ISBN 0-8028-2416-1
5. ^ Wilhelm, Joseph and Thomas Scannell. Manual of Catholic Theology. Volume 1, Part 1. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd. 1906. pp. 94–100
6. ^ Encyclopedia of Catholicism by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton 207 ISBN 0-8160-5455-X p. 267

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19 July 1985 The Val di Stava dam collapses killing 268 people in Val di Stava, Italy.

Val di Stava dam collapse

1985 dam structural failure near Tesero, Italy

The Val di Stava Dam collapse occurred on 19 July 1985, when two tailings dams above the village of Stava, near Tesero, Italy, failed. It resulted in one of Italy's worst disasters, killing 268 people, destroying 63 buildings and demolishing eight bridges.

The upper dam broke first, leading to the collapse of the lower dam. Around 180,000 cubic metres (6,350,000 ft³) of mud, sand, and water were released into the Rio di Stava valley and toward the village of Stava at a speed of 90 km/h (56 mph). Having crashed through the village, the torrent continued until it reached the Avisio River a further 4.2 km (2.6 mi) away, destroying everything in its path.^[1]

1. ^ F. Luino and J. V. De Graff (2012). "The Stava mudflow of 19 July 1985 (Northern Italy): a disaster that effective regulation might have prevented" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 12 (4). Copernicus Publications: 1030–1042. Bibcode:2012NHESS..12.1029L. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-1029-2012. Retrieved 1 January 2015.

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20 July 1940 Denmark leaves the League of Nations.

League of Nations

20th-century international organisation, predecessor to the United Nations

Not to be confused with Commonwealth of Nations or Nations League.

This article is about the intergovernmental organisation. For the group in professional wrestling, see League of Nations (professional wrestling).

The League of Nations (French: Société des Nations [sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃]) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.^[1] It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. The main organization ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new United Nations. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world.

The League's primary goals were stated in its eponymous Covenant. They included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.^[2] Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.^[3] The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. Australia was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.^[4] The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role as the leading architect of the League.

The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious Allies of World War I (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Executive Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."^[5]

At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. The credibility of the organization was weakened by the fact that the United States never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The Soviet Union only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after invading Finland.^[6][7][8][9] Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the Abyssinia Crisis, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the Second World War in 1939 showed that the League had failed its primary purpose; it was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League.

Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the rule of law across the globe; strengthened the concept of collective security, giving a voice to smaller nations; fostered economic stabilization and financial stability, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like epidemics, slavery, child labour, colonial tyranny, refugee crises and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the mandate system put the colonial powers under international observation.^[10] Professor David Kennedy portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.^[11]

1. ^ Christian, Tomuschat (1995). The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-0145-7.
2. ^ "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
3. ^ See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009., Treaty of Versailles. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010. and Minority Treaties.
4. ^ Rees, Dr Yves (2020). "The women of the League of Nations". www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
5. ^ Jahanpour, Farhang. "The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran" (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
6. ^ Osakwe, C O (1972). The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-286-0002-7.
7. ^ Pericles, Lewis (2000). Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-139-42658-9.
8. ^ Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8108-6513-6.
9. ^ Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-58477-320-7.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pedersen2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Kennedy 1987.

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21 July 1918 U156 shells Nauset Beach, in Orleans, Massachusetts.

Attack on Orleans

1918 German U-boat raid off Massachusetts, US

For similarly titled battles, see Battle of Orléans.

The attack on Orleans was a naval and air action during World War I on 21 July 1918 when a German submarine fired on a small convoy of barges led by a tugboat off Orleans, Massachusetts, on the eastern coast of the Cape Cod peninsula. Several shells fired during the engagement likely missed their intended maritime or aircraft targets and fell to earth in the area around Orleans, giving the impression of a deliberate attack on the town.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} Biggers, W. Watts (1985). "The Germans are Coming! The Germans are Coming!". Proceedings. 111 (6). United States Naval Institute: 38–43.
2. ^ Hodos, Paul (2017). The Kaiser's Lost Kreuzer: A History of U-156 and Germany's Long-Range Submarine Campaign Against North America, 1918 (1st ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing. pp. 84–88. ISBN 978-1476671628. Retrieved 17 January 2021.

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22 July 1706 The Acts of Union 1707 are agreed upon by commissioners from the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, which, when passed by each countries' Parliaments, led to the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Acts of Union 1707

Acts of Parliament creating the Kingdom of Great Britain

Not to be confused with Union of the Crowns.

"Union of England and Scotland" redirects here. Not to be confused with Union of England and Scotland Act 1603 or Treaty of Union.

United Kingdom legislation

United Kingdom legislation

The Acts of Union (Scottish Gaelic: Achd an Aonaidh) were two Acts of Parliament: the Union with Scotland Act 1706 passed by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act 1707 passed by the Parliament of Scotland. They put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, following negotiation between commissioners representing the parliaments of the two countries. By the two Acts, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland—which at the time were separate states in a personal union—were, in the words of the Treaty, "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".^[2]

The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his double first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, and in spite of James's acknowledgement of his accession to a single Crown,^[3] England and Scotland were officially separate Kingdoms until 1707 (as opposed to the implied creation of a single unified Kingdom, exemplified by the later Kingdom of Great Britain). Prior to the Acts of Union, there had been three previous attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons.

The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707. On this date, the English Parliament and the Scottish Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster in London, the previous home of the English Parliament.^[4] This specific process is sometimes referred to as the "union of the Parliaments" in Scotland.^[5]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Pickering, Danby, ed. (1794). "CAP. XIII An act to prevent acts of parliament from taking effect from a time prior to the passing thereof". The Statutes at Large : Anno tricesimo tertio George III Regis. Vol. XXXIX. Cambridge. pp. 32, 33. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2021. (33 Geo. 3. c. 13: "Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793")
2. ^ Article I of the Treaty of Union
3. ^ "House of Commons Journal Volume 1: 31 March 1607". Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
4. ^ Act of Union 1707, Article 3
5. ^ "Glossary". archive2021.parliament.scot. 20 May 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2023.

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23 July 1903 The Ford Motor Company sells its first car.

Ford Motor Company

American multinational automobile manufacturer

"FORD" redirects here. For other uses, see Ford (disambiguation).

Ford Motor Company (commonly known as Ford) is an American multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand, and luxury cars under its Lincoln brand. Ford also owns a 32% stake in China's Jiangling Motors.^[7] It also has joint ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), and Turkey (Ford Otosan). The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family; they have minority ownership but the majority of the voting power.^[5][8]

Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by moving assembly lines; by 1914, these methods were known around the world as Fordism. Ford's former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000, respectively, were sold to the Indian automaker Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010.^[9] In the third quarter of 2010, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed upscale cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938.^[10]

Ford is the second-largest U.S.-based automaker (behind General Motors) and the sixth-largest in the world (behind Toyota, Volkswagen Group, Hyundai Motor Group, Stellantis, and General Motors) based on 2022 vehicle production.^[11] At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth-largest automaker in Europe.^[12] The company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent of the voting rights.^[5][13] During the financial crisis of 2007–08, the company struggled financially but did not have to be rescued by the federal government, unlike the other two major US automakers.^[14][15] Ford Motors has since returned to profitability,^[16] and was the eleventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2018 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2017 of $156.7 billion.^[17] In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles^[18] and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants and facilities worldwide.

1. ^ Hyde, Charles K. (June 2005). "National Historic Landmark Nomination – Ford Piquette Avenue Plant" (PDF). National Park Service. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2017. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
2. ^ "Ford Motor Company 2021 Annual Form 8-K Report" (PDF). cloudfront.net. December 31, 2021. Retrieved February 4, 2022.
3. ^ "Ford Motor Company 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 7, 2024. Retrieved February 11, 2024.
4. ^ "Ford Motor Company: Shareholders, managers and business summary". 4-Traders. France. Archived from the original on July 18, 2018. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Rogers, Christina (May 12, 2016). "Shareholders Again Back Ford Family". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on September 30, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
6. ^ Howard, Phoebe Wall (March 2, 2022). "Ford reveals radical plan to restructure automaker into three business units". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
7. ^ "Jiangling Motors Corporation, Ltd. 2017 Annual Report" (PDF). JMC. pp. 27, 29. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2019 – via Sohu.
8. ^ Muller, Joann (December 2, 2010). "Ford Family's Stake Is Smaller, But They're Richer And Still Firmly In Control". Forbes. Archived from the original on June 20, 2019. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
9. ^ "Ford Motor Company Completes Sale of Volvo to Geely" (Press release). Ford Motor Company. August 2, 2010. Archived from the original on August 3, 2010. Retrieved August 2, 2010.
10. ^ Maynard, Micheline (June 2, 2010). "Ford to End Production of Its Mercury Line". The New York Times.
11. ^ "Worldwide car sales by manufacturer".
12. ^ "New Passenger Car Registrations by Manufacturer European Union (EU)". ACEA. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
13. ^ Muller, Joann (March 9, 2014). "William Clay Ford's Legacy Cemented Family's Dynasty". Forbes. Archived from the original on November 16, 2018. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
14. ^ "Bush announces $17.4 billion auto bailout". Politico. December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2022.
15. ^ "Stopgap auto bailout to help GM, Chrysler". CNN Money. December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2022.
16. ^ Hammond, Lou Ann (January 13, 2011). "How Ford stayed strong through the financial crisis". Fortune. Archived from the original on July 2, 2018. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
17. ^ "Ford Motor". Fortune. Archived from the original on August 23, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
18. ^ "Ford Motor Company / 2008 Annual Report, Operating Highlights" (PDF). p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 19, 2011. Retrieved September 19, 2010.

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24 July 1977 End of a four-day-long Libyan?Egyptian War.

Libyan?Egyptian_War

 

26 July 1990 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 is signed into law by President George Bush.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

1990 U.S. civil rights law

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 or ADA (42 U.S.C. § 12101) is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964,^[1] which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal, and later sexual orientation and gender identity. In addition, unlike the Civil Rights Act, the ADA also requires covered employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations.^[2]

In 1986, the National Council on Disability had recommended the enactment of an Americans with Disabilities Act and drafted the first version of the bill which was introduced in the House and Senate in 1988. A broad bipartisan coalition of legislators supported the ADA, while the bill was opposed by business interests (who argued the bill imposed costs on business) and conservative evangelicals (who opposed protection for individuals with HIV).^[3] The final version of the bill was signed into law on July 26, 1990, by President George H. W. Bush. It was later amended in 2008 and signed by President George W. Bush with changes effective as of January 1, 2009.^[4]

1. ^ "Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21". findUSlaw. Archived from the original on January 25, 2010.
2. ^ 42 U.S.C. 12112(b)(5), 12182–84
3. ^ Milden, Ian (October 2022). "Examining the Opposition to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: "Nothing More than Bad Quality Hogwash"". Journal of Policy History. 34 (4): 505–528. doi:10.1017/S0898030622000185. ISSN 0898-0306. S2CID 251956132.
4. ^ "President Bush Signs ADA Changes into Law". HR.BLR.com. September 25, 2008. Archived from the original on February 5, 2009.

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27July 1995 The Korean War Veterans Memorial is dedicated in Washington, D.C..

Korean War Veterans Memorial

U.S. national memorial in Washington, D.C.

For other memorials to the Korean War, see Korean War Memorial.

United States historic place

The Korean War Veterans Memorial is located in Washington, D.C.'s West Potomac Park, southeast of the Lincoln Memorial and just south of the Reflecting Pool on the National Mall. It memorializes those who served in the Korean War (1950–1953). The national memorial was dedicated in 1995. It includes 19 statues representing U.S. military personnel in action. In 2022, the memorial was expanded to include a granite memorial wall, engraved with the names of U.S. military personnel (and South Koreans embedded in U.S. military units) who died in the war.

1. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. March 13, 2009.

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28 July 1915 The United States begins a 20-year occupation of Haiti.

United States occupation of Haiti

1915–1934 military occupation

For the 1994–1995 United States occupation, see Operation Uphold Democracy.

The United States occupation of Haiti began on July 28, 1915, when 330 U.S. Marines landed at Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the National City Bank of New York convinced the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, to take control of Haiti's political and financial interests. The July 1915 invasion took place following years of socioeconomic instability within Haiti that culminated with the lynching of President of Haiti Vilbrun Guillaume Sam by a mob angered by his decision to order the executions of political prisoners. The invasion and subsequent occupation was promoted by growing American business interests in Haiti, especially the National City Bank of New York, which had withheld funds from Haiti and paid rebels to destabilize the nation through the Bank of the Republic of Haiti with an aim at inducing American intervention.^{[citation needed]}

During the occupation, Haiti had three new presidents while the United States ruled as a military regime through martial law led by Marines and the Gendarmerie. Two major rebellions against the occupation occurred, resulting in several thousand Haitians killed, and numerous human rights violations – including torture and summary executions – by Marines and the Gendarmerie of Haiti.^{[citation needed]} A corvée system of forced labor was used by the United States for infrastructure projects, that resulted in hundreds to thousands of deaths.^[6] Under the occupation, most Haitians continued to live in poverty, while American personnel were well-compensated. The American occupation ended the constitutional ban on foreign ownership of land, which had existed since the foundation of Haiti.

The occupation ended on August 1, 1934, after President Franklin D. Roosevelt reaffirmed an August 1933 disengagement agreement. The last contingent of marines departed on August 15, 1934, after a formal transfer of authority to the American-created Gendarmerie of Haiti.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} Clodfelter (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015. p. 378.
2. ^ Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), p. 103; and “Americans Killed in Action,” American War Library, http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/allwars.htm Archived February 22, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Schmidt cites 146 Marine deaths in Haiti; and the American War Library cites 144 Marines killed in action in the Dominican Republic.
3. ^ Hans Schmidt (1971). The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934. Rutgers University Press. p. 102. ISBN 9780813522036.
4. ^ Farmer, Paul (2003). The Uses of Haiti. Common Courage Press. p. 98.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Belleau-2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Schmidt, Hans (March 12, 1995). The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-2203-6.

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29 July 1858 United States and Japan sign the Harris Treaty.

Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(United_States?Japan)

 

30 July 1733 The first Masonic Grand Lodge in the future United States is constituted in Massachusetts.

Grand Lodge

Governing body of a fraternal organization

A Grand Lodge, also called Grand Orient or by another similar title, is the overarching governing body of a fraternal or other similarly organized group in a given area, usually a city, state, or country.

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31 July 1856 Christchurch, New Zealand is chartered as a city.

Christchurch

City in Canterbury, New Zealand

"ChCh" redirects here. For the Ontario TV station, see CHCH-DT.

For other uses, see Christchurch (disambiguation).

City in South Island, New Zealand

Christchurch (/ˈkraɪstʃɜːrtʃ/ ^ⓘ; Māori: Ōtautahi) is the largest city in the South Island and the second-largest city by urban area population in New Zealand, after Auckland.^[a] Christchurch lies in the Canterbury Region, near the centre of the east coast of the South Island, east of the Canterbury Plains. It is located near the southern end of Pegasus Bay, and is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean and to the south by the Banks Peninsula. The Avon River (Ōtākaro) flows through the centre of the city, with a large urban park along its banks.

The first Māori inhabitants migrated to the area sometime between 1000 and 1250 AD.^[7] They hunted moa, which led to the birds' extinction by 1450, and destroyed much of the mataī and tōtara forest. The first iwi to settle the area that would later become known as Christchurch were the Waitaha, who migrated to the area in the 16th century. They were followed later by the Kāti Māmoe, who conquered the Waitaha. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ngāi Tahu migrated to the area and subjugated the Kāti Māmoe.^[7]

Christchurch became a city by royal charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Canterbury Association, which settled the Canterbury Plains, named the city after Christ Church, Oxford. The new settlement was laid out in a grid pattern centred on Cathedral Square; during the 19th century there were few barriers to the rapid growth of the urban area, except for the Pacific to the east and the Port Hills to the south. Agriculture is the historic mainstay of Christchurch's economy. The early presence of the University of Canterbury and the heritage of the city's academic institutions in association with local businesses has fostered a number of technology-based industries. Christchurch is one of five Antarctic gateway cities, hosting Antarctic support bases for several nations.^[8]

The city's territorial authority population is 396,200 people, and includes a number of smaller urban areas as well as rural areas.^[4] The population of the urban area is 384,800 people.^[4] It is the major urban area of an emerging sub-region known as Greater Christchurch.^[9] Notable smaller urban areas or satellite towns within this sub-region include Rangiora and Kaiapoi in Waimakariri District, north of the Waimakariri River, and Rolleston and Lincoln in Selwyn District to the south.

The city suffered a series of earthquakes between September 2010 and January 2012, with the most destructive occurring on 22 February 2011, in which 185 people were killed and thousands of buildings across the city suffered severe damage, with a few central city buildings collapsing. By late 2013, 1,500 buildings in the city had been demolished, leading to ongoing recovery and rebuilding projects. The city later became the site of a terrorist attack targeting two mosques on 15 March 2019.

1. ^ "Civic coats of arms". Retrieved 17 March 2022.
2. ^ "Urban Rural 2020 (generalised) – GIS | | GIS Map Data Datafinder Geospatial Statistics | Stats NZ Geographic Data Service". datafinder.stats.govt.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
3. ^ "NZ Topographic Map". Land Information New Zealand. Archived from the original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Subnational population estimates (RC, SA2), by age and sex, at 30 June 1996-2023 (2023 boundaries)". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2023. (regional councils); "Subnational population estimates (TA, SA2), by age and sex, at 30 June 1996-2023 (2023 boundaries)". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2023. (territorial authorities); "Subnational population estimates (urban rural), by age and sex, at 30 June 1996-2023 (2023 boundaries)". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2023. (urban areas)
5. ^ "Yeah, Nah: Is Wellington (or Christchurch) NZ's second city?". Stuff. 2 September 2022.
6. ^ "Functional urban areas – methodology and classification". Statistics New Zealand. 10 February 2021.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Early Christchurch – a brief history". Christchurch City Libraries. Christchurch City Council. Retrieved 25 November 2021.
8. ^ "Christchurch – Gateway to Antarctica". Antarctica New Zealand. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
9. ^ "Greater Christchurch 2050". www.greaterchristchurch.org.nz/. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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1 August 1831 A new London Bridge opens.

London Bridge

1973 Thames road bridge in London, England

Not to be confused with Tower Bridge.

For other uses, see London Bridge (disambiguation).

London Bridge refers to several historic crossings that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London since Roman times. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and steel. It replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old stone-built medieval structure. In addition to the roadway, for much of its history, the broad medieval bridge supported an extensive built up area of homes and businesses part of the City's Bridge ward and its southern end in Southwark was guarded by a large stone City gateway. The medieval bridge was preceded by a succession of timber bridges, the first of which was built by the Roman founders of London (Londinium) around 50 AD.

The current bridge stands at the western end of the Pool of London and is positioned 30 metres (98 ft) upstream from previous alignments. The approaches to the medieval bridge were marked by the church of St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank and by Southwark Cathedral on the southern shore. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston upon Thames. London Bridge has been depicted in its several forms, in art, literature, and songs, including the nursery rhyme "London Bridge Is Falling Down", and the epic poem The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot.

The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates, an independent charity of medieval origin overseen by the City of London Corporation. It carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority.^[1] The crossing also delineates an area along the southern bank of the River Thames, between London Bridge and Tower Bridge, that has been designated as a business improvement district.^[2]

1. ^ "Statutory Instrument 2000 No. 1117 – The GLA Roads Designation Order 2000". Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
2. ^ "About us". TeamLondonBridge. Archived from the original on 8 December 2008. Retrieved 21 November 2008.

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2 August 1932 The positron (antiparticle of the electron) is discovered by Carl D. Anderson.

Positron

Anti-particle to the electron

For other uses, see Positron (disambiguation).

The positron or antielectron is the particle with an electric charge of +1e, a spin of 1/2 (the same as the electron), and the same mass as an electron. It is the antiparticle (antimatter counterpart) of the electron. When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs. If this collision occurs at low energies, it results in the production of two or more photons.

Positrons can be created by positron emission radioactive decay (through weak interactions), or by pair production from a sufficiently energetic photon which is interacting with an atom in a material.

1. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: electron mass". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
2. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: electron mass in u". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
3. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: electron mass energy equivalent in MeV". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
4. ^ "2018 CODATA Value: elementary charge". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2019.

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3 August 1946 Santa Claus Land, the world's first themed amusement park, opens in Santa Claus, Indiana, United States.

Holiday_World_%26_Splashin'_Safari

 

4 August 1824 The Battle of Kos is fought between Turkish and Greek forces.

Kos

Island in Greece

For other uses, see Kos (disambiguation).

Municipality in Greece

Kos or Cos (/kɒs, kɔːs/; Greek: Κως [kos]) is a Greek island, which is part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Kos is the third largest island of the Dodecanese by area, after Rhodes and Karpathos; it has a population of 37,089 (2021 census), making it the second most populous of the Dodecanese, after Rhodes.^[1] The island measures 42.1 by 11.5 kilometres (26 by 7 miles).^{[citation needed]} Administratively, Kos constitutes a municipality within the Kos regional unit, which is part of the South Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is the town of Kos.^[2]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2021, Μόνιμος Πληθυσμός κατά οικισμό" [Results of the 2021 Population - Housing Census, Permanent population by settlement] (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 29 March 2024.
2. ^ "ΦΕΚ A 87/2010, Kallikratis reform law text" (in Greek). Government Gazette.

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5 August 1914 In Cleveland, Ohio, the first electric traffic light is installed.

Traffic light

Signaling device to control competing flows of traffic

This article is about lights used for signalling. For other uses, see Traffic light (disambiguation).

"Stoplight" redirects here. For other uses, see Stoplight (disambiguation).

Traffic lights, traffic signals, or stoplights – also known as robots in South Africa^[1][2] and Namibia – are signalling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other locations in order to control the flow of traffic.^[3]

Traffic lights consist normally of three signals, transmitting meaningful information to road users through colours and symbols including arrows and bicycles. The regular traffic light colours are red, yellow (also known as amber), and green arranged vertically or horizontally in that order. Although this is internationally standardised,^[4] variations exist on national and local scales as to traffic light sequences and laws.^[5]

The method was first introduced in December 1868 on Parliament Square in London to reduce the need for police officers to control traffic.^[6] Since then, electricity and computerised control has advanced traffic light technology and increased intersection capacity.^[7] The system is also used for other purposes, for example, to control pedestrian movements, variable lane control (such as tidal flow systems or smart motorways), and railway level crossings.

1. ^ "robot - definition of robot in English - Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Archived from the original on 14 August 2018.
2. ^ "see robot - definition of robot in Dictionary of South African English". Editor's Note: The origin of 'robot' used as 'traffic light' is from the English translation of the play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek which debuted in England in 1923 which introduced the term 'robot' to an English audience. For a short time in England it was fashionable to use 'robot' for 'traffic light' from the late 1920s, when traffic lights were being installed in England. This usage travelled to South Africa in the early 1930s, when they had their first traffic lights installed, and where it continues to be used almost 90 years later, while 'robot' for 'traffic light' fell out of usage in England. See Foster, B. 1970. The changing English language. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin.
3. ^ McShane, Clay (March 1999). "The Origins and Globalization of Traffic Control Signals" (PDF). Journal of Urban History. 25 (3): 379–404. doi:10.1177/009614429902500304. S2CID 110125733. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
4. ^ Convention on Road Signs and Signals of 1968; European Agreement Supplementing the Convention; and, Protocol on Road Markings, Additional to the European Agreement : (2006 consolidated versions). New York: United Nations. Economic Commission for Europe. Transport Division. 2007. ISBN 978-92-1-139128-2. OCLC 227191711.
5. ^ see Variations in traffic light operation
6. ^ Thames Leisure. "12 Amazing Facts About London". Archived from the original on 7 January 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
7. ^ Sessions (1971), p. 141.

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