This day in .....

4 November 1921 ? Japanese Prime Minister Hara Takashi is assassinated in Tokyo.

Hara Takashi

Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 to 1921

"Takashi Hara" redirects here. For the artist, see Takashi Hara (artist).

In this Japanese name, the surname is Hara. The baptismal name is Takashi.

Hara Takashi (原 敬, 15 March 1856 – 4 November 1921) was a Japanese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 until his assassination.

Hara held several minor ambassadorial roles before rising through the ranks of the Rikken Seiyūkai and being elected to the House of Representatives. Hara served as Home Minister in several cabinets under Saionji Kinmochi and Yamamoto Gonnohyōe between 1906 and 1913. Hara was appointed Prime Minister following the Rice Riots of 1918 and positioned himself as a moderate, participating in the Paris Peace Conference, founding the League of Nations, and relaxing oppressive policies in Japanese Korea. Hara's premiership oversaw the Siberian intervention and the suppression of the March 1st Movement in Japanese-occupied Korea. Hara was assassinated by Nakaoka Kon'ichi, a far-right nationalist, on 4 November 1921.

Hara was the first commoner and first Christian appointed to be Prime Minister of Japan, informally known as Hara Kei, and given the moniker of "commoner prime minister" (平民宰相, heimin saishō).

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5 November 1925 ? Secret agent Sidney Reilly, the first "super-spy" of the 20th century, is executed by the OGPU, the secret police of the Soviet Union.

Sidney Reilly

Russian-born adventurer and secret agent (1873–1925)

"Sidney Riley" redirects here. For the Australian rugby union player, see Sid Riley.

Sidney George Reilly MC (/ˈraɪli/; c. 1873^[a] – 5 November 1925), known as the "Ace of Spies", was a Russian-born adventurer and secret agent employed by Scotland Yard's Special Branch and later by the Foreign Section of the British Secret Service Bureau,^[9] the precursor to the modern British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6/SIS).^[10][11] He is alleged to have spied for at least four different great powers,^[1] and documentary evidence indicates that he was involved in espionage activities in 1890s London among Russian émigré circles, in Manchuria on the eve of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), and in an abortive 1918 coup d'état against Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik government in Moscow.^[12]

Reilly disappeared in Soviet Russia in the mid-1920s, lured by the Cheka's Operation Trust. British diplomat and journalist R. H. Bruce Lockhart publicised his and Reilly's 1918 exploits to overthrow the Bolshevik regime in Lockhart's 1932 book Memoirs of a British Agent.^[13][14] This became an international best-seller and garnered global fame for Reilly. The memoirs retold the efforts by Reilly, Lockhart, and other conspirators to sabotage the Bolshevik revolution while still in its infancy.

The world press made Reilly into a household name within five years of his execution by Soviet agents in 1925, lauding him as a peerless spy and recounting his many espionage adventures. Newspapers dubbed him "the greatest spy in history" and "the Scarlet Pimpernel of Red Russia".^[15] The London Evening Standard described his exploits in an illustrated serial in May 1931 headlined "Master Spy". Ian Fleming used him as a model for James Bond in his novels set in the early Cold War.^[16] Reilly is considered to be "the dominating figure in the mythology of modern British espionage".^[17]

1. ^ ^{a b} Deacon 1987, pp. 133–136.
2. ^ Deacon 1987, p. 77.
3. ^ Deacon 1972, pp. 144, 175.
4. ^ McNeal 2002, p. 137.
5. ^ Spence 2002, pp. 57–59.
6. ^ Williamson 1926.
7. ^ Ludecke 1929, p. 107.
8. ^ Hill 1932, p. 201.
9. ^ New York Times 1933.
10. ^ Thomson 2011.
11. ^ SIS Website 2007.
12. ^ Lockhart 1932, pp. 277, 322–323.
13. ^ Lockhart 1932.
14. ^ Spence 2002, Chapter 8: The Russian Question.
15. ^ Billington 1984.
16. ^ Lycett 1996, pp. 118, 132.
17. ^ Andrew 1986, p. 83.

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6 November 1947 Meet the Press makes its television debut (the show went to a weekly schedule on September 12, 1948).

Meet the Press

American news/interview television program

This article is about the American public affairs program. For the Australian program, see Meet the Press (Australian TV program).

Meet the Press is a weekly American television Sunday morning talk show broadcast on NBC.^[6][7] It is the longest-running program on American television, though its format has changed since the debut episode on November 6, 1947.^[8][9] Meet the Press specializes in interviews with leaders in Washington, D.C., across the country, and around the world on issues of politics, economics, foreign policy, and other public affairs, along with panel discussions that provide opinions and analysis. In January 2021, production moved to NBC's bureau on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C.^[5][10]

The longevity of Meet the Press is attributable in part to the fact that the program debuted during what was only the second official "network television season" for American television. It was the first live television network news program on which a sitting president of the United States appeared, this occurred on its broadcast on November 9, 1975, which featured Gerald Ford. The program has been hosted by 12 moderators, beginning with creator Martha Rountree. The show's current moderator is Kristen Welker, who became moderator in September 2023 following longtime moderator Chuck Todd’s departure.

Meet the Press airs Sundays from 9–10 a.m. ET on the NBC-TV network; 10:30–11:30 a.m. ET in New York and Washington. The program also re-airs at 2 p.m. ET Sundays and 2 a.m. and 4 a.m. ET Mondays on MSNBC on cable.^[11] Meet the Press is also occasionally pre-empted by network coverage of sports events held outside the U.S. The program is also rebroadcast on Mondays at 2:30 a.m. Eastern Time on MSNBC, whose audio feed is also simulcast on Sirius/XM Satellite Radio. The program is syndicated by Westwood One to various radio stations around the United States, and is on C-SPAN Radio as part of its replays of the Sunday morning talk shows.

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference 60th was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference shemadeit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Meet the Press – Credits". NBCUniversal. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
4. ^ "The Sounds of War". Slate. April 2003.
5. ^ ^{a b} Johnson, Ted (25 January 2021). "NBCU Debuts New Washington Bureau And Studios". Deadline. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
6. ^ "Meet the Press: Cast & Details". TV Guide. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
7. ^ "About Meet The Press". MSNBC. Archived from the original on February 3, 2004. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
8. ^ "Meet the Press: U.S. Public Affairs/Interview". Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on September 25, 2012.
9. ^ "About 'Meet the Press' – Meet the Press – About us | NBC News". 2012-12-31. Archived from the original on 2012-12-31. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
10. ^ Ball, Rick (1998). Meet the Press: Fifty Years of History in the Making. McGraw Hill. pp. 12 (Farley), 14–15 (Chambers), 15–17 (Bentley), 51–53 (Castro), 67–68 (JFK) 92 (MLK), 167 (satellite). Retrieved 18 March 2020.
11. ^ "Watch NBC's 'Meet the Press with Kristen Welker' in your area". NBC News. 2023-09-18. Retrieved 2024-01-07.

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7 November 1929 In New York City, the Museum of Modern Art opens to the public.

Museum of Modern Art

This article is about the museum in New York City. For other uses, see Museum of Modern Art (disambiguation) and Moma (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Art museum in New York City, U.S.

The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. The institution was conceived in 1929 by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Lillie P. Bliss, and Mary Quinn Sullivan. Initially located in the Heckscher Building on Fifth Avenue, it opened just days after the Wall Street Crash. The museum, America's first devoted exclusively to modern art, was led by A. Conger Goodyear as president and Abby Rockefeller as treasurer, with Alfred H. Barr Jr. as its first director. Under Barr's leadership, the museum's collection rapidly expanded, beginning with an inaugural exhibition of works by European modernists. Despite financial challenges, including opposition from John D. Rockefeller Jr., the museum moved to several temporary locations in its early years, and John D. Rockefeller Jr. eventually donated the land for its permanent site.

During the 1930s and 1950s, MoMA gained international recognition with landmark exhibitions, such as Barr's influential "Cubism and Abstract Art" in 1936, a retrospective of Pablo Picasso's works organized in 1939-40 and the "Indian Art of the United States" exhibition in 1941. Abby Rockefeller's son, Nelson, became the museum's president in 1939, playing a key role in its expansion and publicity. His brother, David Rockefeller, joined the board in 1948 and continued the family's close association with the museum. Significant events during this period included a major fire in 1958, which destroyed a painting by Claude Monet and led to the evacuation of other artworks. The museum's architectural evolution also continued, with a redesign of the sculpture garden by Philip Johnson and relocation to its current home designed by Philip L. Goodwin and Edward Durell Stone, which opened in 1939.

In later decades, the controversial decision to withdraw funding from the antiwar poster "And Babies" in 1969, and the subsequent protests, highlighted the museum's involvement in contemporary sociopolitical issues. It was also among several institutions to aid CIA in its efforts to engage in cultural propaganda during the Cold War.^[2] Major expansions in the 1980s and the early 21st century, including the selection of Japanese architect Yoshio Taniguchi for a significant renovation, nearly doubled MoMA's space for exhibitions and programs. The 2000s saw the formal merger with the P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, and in 2019, another major renovation added significant gallery space.

In 2022, MoMA was the 17th most-visited art museum in the world and the 4th most-visited museum in the United States. MoMA's collection spans the late 19th-century to the present, and includes over 200,000 works of architecture and design, drawing, painting, sculpture, photography, prints, illustrated and artist's books, film, as well as electronic media.^[3] The museum is considered one of the most influential cultural institutions globally devoted to modern and contemporary art.^[4] At the same time, MoMA has long faced criticism for developing and perpetuating Eurocentric narratives of modernism and for its insufficient focus on expanding access to socioeconomically underprivileged groups.^[5][6][7] The museum has been involved in controversies regarding its labor practices, and the institution's labor union, founded in 1971, has been described as the first of its kind in the U.S.^[8] The MoMA Library includes about 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, more than 1,000 periodical titles and more than 40,000 files of ephemera about individual artists and groups.^[9] The archives hold primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art.^[10]

1. ^ The Art Newspaper, List of most-visited museums in 2022, published 28 March 2023
2. ^ Dasal, Jennifer (September 24, 2020). "How MoMA and the CIA Conspired to Use Unwitting Artists to Promote American Propaganda During the Cold War". Artnet News. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
3. ^ "About the Collection". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
4. ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Christin J. Mamiya (2005). "The Development of Modernist Art: The Early 20th Century". Gardner's Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 796. ISBN 978-0-4950-0478-3. Archived from the original on May 10, 2016. The Museum of Modern Art in New York City is consistently identified as the institution most responsible for developing modernist art ... the most influential museum of modern art in the world.
5. ^ Reilly, Maura (October 31, 2019). "MoMA's Revisionism Is Piecemeal and Problem-Filled: Feminist Art Historian Maura Reilly on the Museum's Rehang". ARTnews.com. Retrieved December 16, 2023. According to Barr, "modern art" was a synchronic, linear progression of "isms" in which one (heterosexual, white) male "genius" from Europe or the U.S. influenced another who inevitably trumped or subverted his previous master, thereby producing an avant-garde progression. Barr's story was so ingrained in the institution that it was never questioned as problematic. The fact that very few women, artists of color, and those not from Europe or North America—in other words, all "Other" artists—were not on display was not up for discussion.
6. ^ Cotter, Holland (October 10, 2019). "MoMA Reboots With 'Modernism Plus'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 16, 2023. After decades of stonewalling multiculturalism, MoMA is now acknowledging it, even investing in it, most notably in a permanent collection rehang that features art — much of it recently acquired — from Africa, Asia, South America, and African America, and a significant amount of work by women.
7. ^ McGrath, Jack (October 18, 2019). "What the New MoMA Misunderstands About Pablo Picasso and Faith Ringgold". Frieze. Retrieved December 16, 2023. Despite MoMA's progressive intentions, however, questions remain about what revamped purpose its expansion announces – especially on the levels of education, curatorial method and economic positionality.
8. ^ Greenberger, Alex (October 16, 2019). "'Art Workers Don't Kiss Ass': Looking Back on the Formation of MoMA's Pioneering Union in the 1970s". ARTnews.com. Retrieved December 16, 2023.
9. ^ "Library". MoMA. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.
10. ^ "About the Archives". MoMA. Archived from the original on February 13, 2016.

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8 November 1602 The Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford is opened to the public.

Bodleian Library

Research library of the University of Oxford

Not to be confused with the Bodleian Libraries, the library group of which the Bodleian is a member.

The Bodleian Library (/ˈbɒdliən, bɒdˈliːən/) is the main research library of the University of Oxford, and is one of the oldest libraries in Europe. It derives its name from its founder, Sir Thomas Bodley. With over 13 million printed items,^[1] it is the second-largest library in Britain after the British Library.^[2] Under the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003, it is one of six legal deposit libraries for works published in the United Kingdom,^[3][4] and under Irish law it is entitled to request a copy of each book published in the Republic of Ireland.^[5] Known to Oxford scholars as "Bodley" or "the Bod", it operates principally as a reference library and, in general, documents may not be removed from the reading rooms.

In 2000, a number of libraries within the University of Oxford were brought together for administrative purposes under the aegis of what was initially known as Oxford University Library Services (OULS), and since 2010 as the Bodleian Libraries, of which the Bodleian Library is the largest component.

All colleges of the University of Oxford have their own libraries, which in a number of cases were established well before the foundation of the Bodleian, and all of which remain entirely independent of the Bodleian. They do, however, participate in SOLO (Search Oxford Libraries Online), the Bodleian Libraries' online union catalogue, except for University College, which has an independent catalogue. Much of the library's archives were digitized and put online for public access in 2015.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Bodleian Libraries – About us". ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
2. ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. New York: Skyhorse. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-8389-0991-1.
3. ^ Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003
4. ^ "Agency for the Legal Deposit Libraries". llgc.org.uk.
5. ^ S198(5) Copyright and Related Rights Act 2000
6. ^ Jonathan Jones, Oxford's online Bodleian archive: illumination for all, The Guardian, 8 August 2015.

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9 November 1953 Cambodia gains independence from France.

Cambodia

Country in Southeast Asia

This article is about the country. For the song, see Cambodia (song).

"Kampuchea" redirects here. For other uses, see Kampuchea (disambiguation).

You may need rendering support to display the Khmer text in this article correctly.

Cambodia,^[a] officially the Kingdom of Cambodia,^[b] is a country in Mainland Southeast Asia, spanning an area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles), bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. The capital and most populous city is Phnom Penh.

In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name "Kambuja".^[16] This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and then Buddhism to Southeast Asia and undertook religious infrastructural projects throughout the region. In the fifteenth century, Cambodia experienced a decline of power, and in 1863, it became a protectorate of France. After a period of Japanese occupation during the Second World War, Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The Vietnam War extended into the country in 1965 via the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk trails. A 1970 coup installed the US-aligned Khmer Republic, which was overthrown by the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The Khmer Rouge ruled the country and carried out the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. The Vietnamese-occupied People's Republic of Kampuchea became the de facto government. Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords which formally ended the war with Vietnam, Cambodia was governed by a United Nations mission (1992–93). The UN withdrew after holding elections in which around 90% of the registered voters cast ballots. The 1997 coup d'état consolidated power under Prime Minister Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party (CPP). While constitutionally a multi-party state,^[17] CPP dominates the political system and dissolved its main opposition party in 2017, making Cambodia a de facto one-party state.^[18]

The United Nations designates Cambodia as a least developed country.^[19] Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, ASEAN, the RCEP, the East Asia Summit, the WTO, the Non-Aligned Movement and La Francophonie. Cambodia is a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.^[20][21] Agriculture remains the dominant economic sector, with growth in textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading to increased foreign investment and international trade.^[22] Cambodia is considered among the most vulnerable countries to climate change.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia". Office of the Council of Ministers. អង្គភាពព័ត៌មាន និងប្រតិកម្មរហ័ស. Archived from the original on 14 December 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
2. ^ "General Population Census of Cambodia 2019" (PDF).
3. ^ "Ethnic Minorities, Census of Cambodia 2019" (PDF).
4. ^ "Constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia" (PDF). Constitutional Council of Cambodia. October 2015. p. 14 Article 43. Archived from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022. Buddhism is State's religion
5. ^ "General Population Census of Cambodia 2019" (PDF).
6. ^ "What to expect from Cambodia's new 'dynastic' prime minister". Deutsche Welle. 8 August 2022. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
7. ^ Syed, Armani (26 July 2023). "What to Know About the Army Chief Who Will Be Cambodia's Next Leader". Time. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
8. ^ Hunt, Luke (23 August 2023). "Assessing Cambodia's New Political Leadership". The Diplomat. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
9. ^ https://www.nis.gov.kh/index.php/en/national-statistical-systems/official-statistics-of-cambodia
10. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Cambodia)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
11. ^ "Income Gini coefficient". hdr.undp.org. World Bank. Archived from the original on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
12. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
13. ^ Nay Im, Tal; Dabadie, Michel (31 March 2007). "Dollarization in Cambodia" (PDF). National Bank of Cambodia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
14. ^ Nagumo, Jada (4 August 2021). "Cambodia aims to wean off US dollar dependence with digital currency". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 15 April 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022. Cambodia runs a dual-currency system, with the U.S. dollar widely circulating in its economy. The country's dollarization began in the 1980s and 90s, following years of civil war and unrest.
15. ^ "Cambodia". Dictionary.reference.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2013.
16. ^ Chandler, David P. (1992) History of Cambodia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, ISBN 0813335116.
17. ^ "CONSTITUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF CAMBODIA". pressocm.gov.kh. Office of the Council of Ministers. 25 January 2017. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2019.
18. ^ Barrett, Chris (10 November 2022). "Biden, Albanese urged to fight repression in Cambodia". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
19. ^ "UN list of Least Developed Countries". UNCTAD. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
20. ^ Kucera, Joshua (10 July 2015). "SCO Summit Provides Few Concrete Results, But More Ambitious Goals". Eurasianet. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
21. ^ "Cambodia becomes dialogue partner in SCO". TASS. 24 September 2015.
22. ^ "Cambodia to outgrow LDC status by 2020". The Phnom Penh Post. 18 May 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2011.

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10 November 1983 ? Bill Gates introduces Windows 1.0.

Windows 1.0

First major release of Microsoft Windows

Not to be confused with Windows 10.

Windows 1.0 is the first major release of Microsoft Windows, a family of graphical operating systems for personal computers developed by Microsoft. It was first released to manufacturing in the United States on November 20, 1985, while the European version was released as Windows 1.02 in May 1986.

Its development began after the Microsoft co-founder and spearhead of Windows 1.0, Bill Gates, saw a demonstration of a similar software suite, Visi On, at COMDEX in 1982. The operating environment was showcased to the public in November 1983, although it ended up being released two years later. Windows 1.0 runs on MS-DOS, as a 16-bit shell program known as MS-DOS Executive, and it provides an environment which can run graphical programs designed for Windows, as well as existing MS-DOS software. It introduced multitasking and the use of the mouse, and various built-in programs such as Calculator, Paint, and Notepad. The operating environment does not allow its windows to overlap, and instead, the windows are tiled. Windows 1.0 received four releases numbered 1.01 through 1.04, mainly adding support for newer hardware or additional languages.

The system received lukewarm reviews; critics raised concerns about not fulfilling expectations, its compatibility with very little software, and its performance issues, while it has also received positive responses to Microsoft's early presentations and support from a number of hardware- and software-makers. Its last release was 1.04, and it was succeeded by Windows 2.0, which was released in December 1987. Microsoft ended its support for Windows 1.0 on December 31, 2001, making it the longest-supported out of all versions of Windows.

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11 November 1880 Australian bushranger Ned Kelly is hanged at Melbourne Gaol.

Ned Kelly

Australian bushranger (1854–1880)

For other uses, see Ned Kelly (disambiguation).

Edward Kelly (December 1854^[a] – 11 November 1880) was an Australian bushranger, outlaw, gang leader and convicted police-murderer. One of the last bushrangers, he is known for wearing a suit of bulletproof armour during his final shootout with the police.

Kelly was born in the then–British colony of Victoria as the third of eight children to Irish parents. His father, a transported convict, died shortly after serving a six-month prison sentence, leaving Kelly, then aged 12, as the eldest male of the household. The Kellys were a poor selector family who saw themselves as downtrodden by the Squattocracy and as victims of persecution by the Victoria Police. While a teenager, Kelly was arrested for associating with bushranger Harry Power and served two prison terms for a variety of offences, the longest stretch being from 1871 to 1874 on a conviction of receiving a stolen horse. He later joined the "Greta Mob", a group of bush larrikins known for stock theft. A violent confrontation with a policeman occurred at the Kelly family's home in 1878, and Kelly was indicted for his attempted murder. Fleeing to the bush, Kelly vowed to avenge his mother, who was imprisoned for her role in the incident. After he, his younger brother Dan, and two associates—Joe Byrne and Steve Hart—shot dead three policemen, the government of Victoria proclaimed them outlaws.

Kelly and his gang eluded the police for two years, thanks in part to the support of an extensive network of sympathisers. The gang's crime spree included raids on Euroa and Jerilderie, and the killing of Aaron Sherritt, a sympathiser turned police informer. In a manifesto letter, Kelly—denouncing the police, the Victorian government and the British Empire—set down his own account of the events leading up to his outlawry. Demanding justice for his family and the rural poor, he threatened dire consequences against those who defied him. In 1880, when his attempt to derail and ambush a police train failed, he and his gang, dressed in armour fashioned from stolen plough mouldboards, engaged in a final gun battle with the police at Glenrowan. Kelly, the only survivor, was severely wounded by police fire and captured. Despite thousands of supporters attending rallies and signing a petition for his reprieve, Kelly was tried, convicted and sentenced to death by hanging, which was carried out at the Old Melbourne Gaol.

Historian Geoffrey Serle called Kelly and his gang "the last expression of the lawless frontier in what was becoming a highly organised and educated society, the last protest of the mighty bush now tethered with iron rails to Melbourne and the world".^[1] In the century after his death, Kelly became a cultural icon, inspiring numerous works in the arts and popular culture, and is the subject of more biographies than any other Australian. Kelly continues to cause division in his homeland: some celebrate him as Australia's equivalent of Robin Hood, while others regard him as a murderous villain undeserving of his folk hero status.^[2] Journalist Martin Flanagan wrote: "What makes Ned a legend is not that everyone sees him the same—it's that everyone sees him. Like a bushfire on the horizon casting its red glow into the night."^[3]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Serle, Geoffrey (1971). The Rush to Be Rich: A History of the Colony of Victoria 1883–1889. Melbourne University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-522-84009-4.
2. ^ Brear, Bea (9 April 2003). "Ned Kelly: freedom fighter or villain?" Archived 24 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Green Left Weekly. Retrieved 23 December 2013.
3. ^ Flanagan, Martin (30 March 2013). "Rebels who knew the end was coming, but stood up anyway" Archived 20 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, The Age. Retrieved 13 July 2015.

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12 November 1997 Ramzi Yousef is found guilty of masterminding the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.

Ramzi Yousef

Pakistani terrorist convicted of 1993 World Trade Center bombing

"Armaldo Forlani" redirects here. For the Italian politician, see Arnaldo Forlani.

Ramzi Ahmed Yousef (Arabic: رمزي احمد يوسف, romanized: Ramzī Ahmad Yūsuf; born 27 April 1968) is a convicted terrorist who was one of the main perpetrators of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the bombing of Philippine Airlines Flight 434; he was also a co-conspirator in the Bojinka plot. In 1995, he was arrested by the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and U.S. Diplomatic Security Service at a guest house in Islamabad, Pakistan, while trying to set a bomb in a doll,^[4][5][6] then extradited to the United States.

Yousef was tried in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York along with two co-conspirators and was convicted of planning the Bojinka plot.^[7] He received two life sentences plus 240 years for his part in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and Bojinka plot.

Yousef's maternal uncle is Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, with whom he allegedly planned the Bojinka plot. Mohammed is a senior al-Qaeda member accused of being the principal architect of the September 11 attacks in 2001. Yousef is serving his life sentences at ADX Florence, located near Florence, Colorado.^[8] He shared a cell block that is commonly referred to as "Bombers' Row" with Terry Nichols, Eric Rudolph, and Ted Kaczynski, before his transfer in late 2021.^[9] In 2007, Ramzi Yousef claimed to have found Jesus and converted to Christianity.^{[10][11][12][13]}

1. ^ Lambert, Laura. "Ramzi Ahmed Yousef". Encyclopedia Britannica, 23 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramzi-Ahmed-Yousef. Accessed 11 February 2023.
2. ^ Mylroie, Laurie (2001). Study of Revenge: The First World Trade Center Attack and Saddam Hussein's War Against America. American Enterprise Institute. pp. 54, 58. ISBN 9780844741697. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
3. ^ Some of the many aliases Yousef used to obscure his identity were "Najy Awaita Haddad" (as a Moroccan national registered at Dona Josefa Apartments, Manila, 1995), Dr "Paul Vijay", Dr "Adel Sabah", Dr. "Richard Smith", "Azan Muhammed", "Armaldo Forlani", "Muhammad Ali Baloch", "Kamal Ibraham", and "Khuram Khan" (Lance 2004, p.23)
4. ^ Wright, Robin (4 December 2008). "State's Security Bureau Takes on Expanded Role". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
5. ^ Simon Reeve (1998). The New Jackals: Ramzi Yousef, Osama bin Laden and the future of terrorism. Northeastern University Press. ISBN 1-55553-509-7.
6. ^ Targeted: Volume 1, The Evil Genius (Ramzi Yousef) (Wild Eyes Productions for the History Channel; A&E Networks) 2003
7. ^ CNN.com, January 8, 1998. "'Proud terrorist' gets life for Trade Center Bombing". CNN. Retrieved September 19, 2006.
8. ^ "'93 WTC plotter Ramzi Yousef wants contact ban lifted". CNN. February 18, 2013.
9. ^ Anderson, James; Brown, Matthew (December 23, 2021). "'Unabomber' Ted Kaczynski transferred to prison medical facility in North Carolina". USA TODAY. Associated Press. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
10. ^ "Jailed '93 WTC bomber claims he's now a Christian". New York Daily News. 2009-08-08. Archived from the original on 2009-08-08. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
11. ^ "1993 WTC FIEND NOW A 'CHRISTIAN'". 2007-10-12. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
12. ^ "Jailed '93 WTC bomber claims he's now a Christian". New York Daily News. 2007-10-12. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
13. ^ Before 9/11: A Biography of World Trade Center Mastermind Ramzi Yousef.

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13 November 1947 The Soviet Union completes development of the AK-47, one of the first proper assault rifles.

AK-47

Soviet 7.62×39mm assault rifle

This article is about the weapon. For other uses, see AK-47 (disambiguation).

This article is about the AK-47. For the AK family, see Kalashnikov rifle.

Not to be confused with AK-74.

The AK-47, officially known as the Avtomat Kalashnikova (Russian: Автомат Калашникова, lit. 'Kalashnikov's automatic [rifle]'; also known as the Kalashnikov or just AK), is a gas-operated assault rifle that is chambered for the 7.62×39mm cartridge. Developed in the Soviet Union by Russian small-arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov, it is the originating firearm of the Kalashnikov (or "AK") family of rifles. After more than eight decades since its creation, the AK-47 model and its variants remain one of the most popular and widely used firearms in the world.

Design work on the AK-47 began in 1945. It was presented for official military trials in 1947, and, in 1948, the fixed-stock version was introduced into active service for selected units of the Soviet Army. In early 1949, the AK was officially accepted by the Soviet Armed Forces^[9] and used by the majority of the member states of the Warsaw Pact.

The model and its variants owe their global popularity to their reliability under harsh conditions, low production cost (compared to contemporary weapons), availability in virtually every geographic region, and ease of use. The AK has been manufactured in many countries and has seen service with armed forces as well as irregular forces and insurgencies throughout the world. As of 2004^[update], "of the estimated 500 million firearms worldwide, approximately 100 million belong to the Kalashnikov family, three-quarters of which are AK-47s".^[4] The model is the basis for the development of many other types of individual, crew-served, and specialized firearms.

1. ^ Monetchikov 2005, chpts. 6 and 7: (if AK-46 and AK-47 are to be seen as separate designs).
2. ^ Ezell, Edward Clinton (1986). The AK47 Story, Evolution of the Kalashnikov Weapons. Stackpole Books. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-811-70916-3.
3. ^ Joe, Poyer (2004). The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations. North Cape Publications Inc. p. 8. ISBN 1-882391-33-0.
4. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference k3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference foxnews was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ ^{a b} НСД. 7,62-мм автомат АК 1967, pp. 161–162.
7. ^ ^{a b} НСД. 7,62-мм автомат АКМ (АКМС) 1983, pp. 149–150.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Cite error: The named reference izhmash was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Monetchikov 2005, p. 67; Bolotin 1995, p. 129.

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14 November 1957 The Apalachin Meeting outside Binghamton, New York is raided by law enforcement, and many high level Mafia figures are arrested.

Apalachin Meeting

Redirect to:

• Apalachin meeting

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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15 November 1971 Intel releases the world's first commercial single-chip microprocessor, the 4004.

Intel 4004

4-bit microprocessor

"4004" redirects here. For 4004 BC as the putative beginning of the world, see Ussher chronology. For 4004 BC in other contexts, see 5th millennium BC.

The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU) released by Intel Corporation in 1971. Sold for US$60 (equivalent to $450 in 2023^[2]), it was the first commercially produced microprocessor,^[3] and the first in a long line of Intel CPUs.

The 4004 was the first significant example of large-scale integration, showcasing the superiority of the MOS silicon gate technology (SGT). Compared to the incumbent technology, the SGT integrated on the same chip area twice the number of transistors with five times the operating speed. This step-function increase in performance made possible a single-chip CPU, replacing the existing multi-chip CPUs. The innovative 4004 chip design served as a model on how to use the SGT for complex logic and memory circuits, thus accelerating the adoption of the SGT by the world's semiconductor industry. The developer of the original SGT at Fairchild was Federico Faggin, who designed the first commercial integrated circuit (IC) that used the new technology, proving its superiority for analog/digital applications (Fairchild 3708 in 1968). He later used the SGT at Intel to obtain the unprecedented integration necessary to make the 4004.

The project traces its history to 1969, when Busicom Corp. approached Intel to design a family of seven chips for an electronic calculator, three of which constituted a CPU specialized for making different calculating machines. The CPU was based on data stored on shift-registers and instructions stored on ROM (read only memory). The complexity of the three-chip CPU logic design led Marcian Hoff to propose a more conventional CPU architecture based on data stored on RAM (random-access memory). This architecture was much simpler and more general-purpose and could potentially be integrated into a single chip, thus reducing the cost and improving the speed. Design began in April 1970 under the direction of Faggin, aided by Masatoshi Shima, who contributed to the architecture and later to the logic design. The first delivery of a fully operational 4004 was in March 1971 to Busicom for its 141-PF printing calculator engineering prototype (now displayed in the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California).^[4] General sales began July 1971.

A number of innovations developed by Faggin while working at Fairchild Semiconductor allowed the 4004 to be produced on a single chip. The main concept was the use of the self-aligned gate, made of polysilicon rather than metal, which allowed the components to be much closer together and work at higher speed. To make the 4004 possible, Faggin also developed the "bootstrap load", considered unfeasible with silicon gate, and the "buried contact" that allowed the silicon gates to be connected directly to the source and drain of the transistors without the use of metal. Together, these innovations doubled the circuit density, and thus halved cost, allowing a single chip to contain 2,300 transistors and run five times faster than designs using the previous MOS technology with aluminum gates.

The 4004 design was later improved by Faggin as the Intel 4040 in 1974. The Intel 8008 and 8080 were unrelated designs in spite of the similar naming.

1. ^ "The Life Cycle of a CPU". www.cpushack.com.
2. ^ "The 40th birthday of—maybe—the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004". 2011-11-15.
3. ^ "The Story of the Intel 4004". Intel.
4. ^ "The Intel 4004 Microprocessor and the Silicon Gate Technology: The Busicom Engineering Prototype". Intel4004.com.

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16 November 1855 David Livingstone becomes the first European to see the Victoria Falls in what is now present-day Zambia-Zimbabwe.

David Livingstone

British colonialist and missionary to Africa (1813–1873)

For other people named David Livingstone, see David Livingstone (disambiguation).

David Livingstone FRGS FRS (/ˈlɪvɪŋstən/; 19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish physician, Congregationalist, pioneer Christian missionary^[2] with the London Missionary Society, and an explorer in Africa. Livingstone was married to Mary Moffat Livingstone, from the prominent 18th-century Moffatt missionary family.^[3] Livingstone came to have a mythic status that operated on a number of interconnected levels: Protestant missionary martyr, working-class "rags-to-riches" inspirational story, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of British commercial and colonial expansion. As a result, Livingstone became one of the most popular British heroes of the late 19th-century Victorian era.

Livingstone's fame as an explorer and his obsession with learning the sources of the Nile River was founded on the belief that if he could solve that age-old mystery, his fame would give him the influence to end the East African Arab–Swahili slave trade. "The Nile sources", he told a friend, "are valuable only as a means of opening my mouth with power among men. It is this power [with] which I hope to remedy an immense evil."^[4] His subsequent exploration of the central African watershed was the culmination of the classic period of European geographical discovery and colonial penetration of Africa. At the same time, his missionary travels, "disappearance", and eventual death in Africa‍—‌and subsequent glorification as a posthumous national hero in 1874‍—‌led to the founding of several major central African Christian missionary initiatives carried forward in the era of the European "Scramble for Africa".^[5]

1. ^ "David Livingstone (1813–1873)". BBC - History - Historic Figures. 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
2. ^ Easton, Mark (3 September 2017). "Why don't many British tourists visit Victoria Falls?". BBC News. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
3. ^ Bayly, Paul (2013). David Livingstone, Africa's greatest explorer : the man, the missionary and the myth. Stroud. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-78155-333-6. OCLC 853507173.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
4. ^ Jeal 2013, p. 289.
5. ^ Mackenzie, John M. (1990). "David Livingstone: The Construction of the Myth". In Walker, Graham; Gallagher, Tom (eds.). Sermons and battle hymns: Protestant popular culture in modern Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0217-9.

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17 November 1953 The remaining human inhabitants of the Blasket Islands, Kerry, Ireland, are evacuated to the mainland.

Blasket Islands

Uninhabited islands off the west coast of County Kerry, Ireland

The Blasket Islands (Irish: Na Blascaodaí) are an uninhabited group of islands off the west coast of the Dingle Peninsula in County Kerry, Ireland. The last island to hold a significant population, Great Blasket Island, was abandoned in 1954 due to population decline and is best known for a number of Irish language writers who vividly described their way of life and who kept alive old Irish folk tales of the land.

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18 November 1987 King's Cross fire: In London, 31 people die in a fire at the city's busiest underground station, King's Cross St Pancras.

King's Cross fire

1987 fire in King's Cross St Pancras tube station, London, England

The King's Cross fire occurred in 1987 at King's Cross St Pancras tube station in London, England, causing 31 fatalities. It began under a wooden escalator before spreading into the ticket hall in a flashover.

The fire began at approximately 19.30 on 18 November 1987,^[1] at a major interchange on the London Underground. As well as the mainline railway stations above ground and subsurface platforms for the Metropolitan, Circle, and Hammersmith & City lines, there were platforms deeper underground for the Northern, Piccadilly, and Victoria lines.

A public inquiry was conducted from February to June 1988. Investigators reproduced the fire twice, once to determine whether grease under the escalator was ignitable, and the other to determine whether a computer simulation of the fire—which would have determined the cause of the flashover—was accurate. The inquiry determined that the fire had been started by a lit match being dropped onto the escalator. The fire seemed minor until it suddenly increased in intensity, and shot a violent, prolonged tongue of fire, and billowing smoke, up into the ticket hall. This sudden transition in intensity, and the spout of fire, was due to the previously unknown trench effect, discovered by the computer simulation of the fire, and confirmed in two tests on scale models.

London Underground was strongly criticised for its attitude toward fires; staff were complacent because there had never been a fatal fire on the system, and had been given little or no training to deal with fires or evacuation. The report on the inquiry resulted in resignations of senior management in both London Underground and London Regional Transport and led to the introduction of new fire safety regulations. Wooden escalators were gradually replaced with metal escalators on the Underground.

1. ^ "Safety fears linger, decade after Kings Cross fire". BBC News. 15 November 1997. Retrieved 12 February 2022.

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19 November 1955 National Review publishes its first issue.

National Review

American conservative editorial magazine

This article is about the American magazine. For other uses, see National Review (disambiguation).

National Review is an American conservative right-libertarian^[4] editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by the author William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955.^[5] Its editor-in-chief is Rich Lowry, and its editor is Ramesh Ponnuru.

Since its founding, the magazine has played a significant role in the development of conservatism in the United States, helping to define its boundaries^[5] and promoting fusionism while establishing itself as a leading voice on the American right.^[5][6][7]

1. ^ "Behold! A New Magazine". National Review. August 20, 2023. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
2. ^ "Garrett Bewkes". National Review. January 27, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
3. ^ Jim Fowler. "National Review Media Kit 2022" (PDF). National Review. Retrieved July 1, 2022.
4. ^ Meylan, Phillip (September 19, 2022). "Is the National Review Reliable?".
5. ^ ^{a b c} Perlstein, Rick (April 11, 2017). "I thought I understood the American Right". The New York Times. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
6. ^ Byers, Dylan (January 21, 2016). "National Review, conservative thinkers stand against Donald Trump". CNN. Retrieved April 5, 2017.
7. ^ Brooks, David (September 24, 2017). "The Conservative Mind". The New York Times. Retrieved June 11, 2017.

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20 November 1945 Nuremberg trials: Trials against 24 Nazi war criminals start at
the Palace of Justice at Nuremberg.

Nuremberg trials

Series of military trials at the end of World War II

For the film, see Nuremberg Trials (film).

"International Military Tribunal" redirects here. For the Tokyo Trial, see International Military Tribunal for the Far East.

The Nuremberg trials were held by the Allies against representatives of the defeated Nazi Germany for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries across Europe and atrocities against their citizens in World War II.

Between 1933 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the Soviet Union alone. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from a show trial (the Soviet Union) to summary executions (the United Kingdom). In mid-1945, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to convene a joint tribunal in Nuremberg, occupied Germany, with the Nuremberg Charter as its legal instrument. Between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the International Military Tribunal (IMT) tried 21 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite.

The IMT verdict followed the prosecution in declaring the crime of plotting and waging aggressive war "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole".^[1] Most of the defendants were also charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity, and the systematic murder of millions of Jews in the Holocaust was significant to the trial. Twelve further trials were conducted by the United States against lower-level perpetrators, which focused more on the Holocaust. Controversial at the time for their retroactive criminalization of aggression, the trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law is considered "the true beginning of international criminal law".^[2]

1. ^ Sellars 2013, p. 165.
2. ^ Sayapin 2014, p. 148.

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21 November 1905 Albert Einstein's paper, "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", is published in the journal Annalen der Physik. This paper reveals the relationship between energy and mass. This leads to the mass?energy equivalence formula E = mc?.

Albert Einstein

German-born physicist (1879–1955)

"Einstein" redirects here. For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation) and Albert Einstein (disambiguation).

Albert Einstein (/ˈaɪnstaɪn/ EYEN-styne;^[4] German: [ˈalbɛɐt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ^ⓘ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is widely held to be one of the greatest and most influential scientists of all time. Best known for developing the theory of relativity, Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics, and was thus a central figure in the revolutionary reshaping of the scientific understanding of nature that modern physics accomplished in the first decades of the twentieth century.^[1][5] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc², which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation".^[6] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",^[7] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.^[8][9] In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World, Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time.^[10] His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius.^[11]

Born in the German Empire, Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg)^{[note 1]} the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich. In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia.^{[note 1]}

In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi "war of extermination" against his fellow Jews,^[12] Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940.^[13] On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay.^[14]

In 1905, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers.^[15] These outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced his special theory of relativity—a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field—and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation. A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.^[16][17] The middle part of his career also saw him making important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that proved ultimately unsuccessful. Firstly, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice".^[18] Secondly, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference frs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "The Gold Medal" (PDF). Royal Astronomical Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
3. ^ "Membership directory". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 20 December 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference NDxay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference YangHamilton2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference LnLVo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nobel Prize was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference xZQWt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference 3UiiT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ "Physics: past, present, future". Physics World. 6 December 1999. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference wordnetweb.princeton.edu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference zE9Bz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference BoyerDubofsky2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Albert Einstein on nuclear weapons | Wise International". wiseinternational.org. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
15. ^ Galison (2000), p. 377.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nobel was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-20151124 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Robinson, Andrew (30 April 2018). "Did Einstein really say that?". Nature. 557 (30): 30. Bibcode:2018Natur.557...30R. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4. S2CID 14013938. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 21 February 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

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22 November 1987 Two Chicago television stations are hijacked by an unknown pirate dressed as Max Headroom.

Max Headroom (character)

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23 November 1978 A cyclone kills about 1000 people in Eastern Sri Lanka.

1978 Sri Lanka cyclone

Strongest tropical cyclone to strike Sri Lanka

The 1978 Sri Lanka Cyclone (JTWC designation: 04B) was one of the most destructive tropical cyclones to strike Sri Lanka since modern records began. The cyclone formed on November 17, 1978, and attained peak intensity on November 23, 1978, right before making landfall in Batticaloa. Sri Lanka's eastern province was heavily affected by the cyclone.^[1]

1. ^ Neelavannan (1979). 12 மணி நேரம் (The 12 hours). Jaffna, Sri Lanka. p. 29.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

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24 November1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.

On the Origin of Species

1859 book on evolution by Charles Darwin

"Origin of Species" and "Origin of the species" redirect here. For other uses, see Origin of Species (disambiguation).

On the Origin of Species (or, more completely, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life)^[3] is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin that is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology; it was published on 24 November 1859.^[4] Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection although Lamarckism was also included as a mechanism of lesser importance. The book presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had collected on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.^[5] The opening sentences demonstrate that Darwin did not see the role of natural selection in species conformity or what is now called stabilizing selection. This was not corrected in editions subsequent to Darwin reading the correct explanation In Patrick Matthew's book in 1860 which had been published in 1831.

Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream.

The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. Darwin was already highly regarded as a scientist, so his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades, there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

1. ^ Darwin 1859, p. iii
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Freeman 1977 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ The book's full original title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. In the 1872 sixth edition, "On" was omitted, so the full title is The origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. This edition is usually known as The Origin of Species. The 6th is Darwin's final edition; there were minor modifications in the text of certain subsequent issues. See Freeman, R. B. "The works of Charles Darwin: an annotated bibliographical handlist." In Van Wyhe, John, ed. Darwin Online: On the Origin of Species, 2002.
4. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 477.
5. ^ "Darwin Manuscripts (Digitised notes on Origin)". Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 24 November 2014.

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25 November 1947 Red Scare: The "Hollywood Ten" are blacklisted by Hollywood movie studios.

Hollywood blacklist

Mid-20th century banning of suspected Communists from US entertainment

This article is about political blacklists in the 1940s and 1950s. For the 1950 short documentary film about this, see The Hollywood Ten. For the survey of unproduced screenplays, see Black List (survey).

The Hollywood blacklist was an entertainment industry blacklist put in effect in the mid-20th century in the United States during the early years of the Cold War, in Hollywood and elsewhere. Actors, screenwriters, directors, musicians, and other American entertainment professionals were barred from work by the studios.

Professionals were blacklisted based on their membership in, alleged membership in, or sympathy with the Communist Party USA, or on the basis of their refusal to assist Congressional investigations into the party's activities. Even during the period of its strictest enforcement, from the late 1940s through to the late 1950s, the blacklist was rarely made explicit or easily verifiable, as it was the result of numerous individual decisions by the studios and was not the result of official legal action. Nevertheless, the blacklist quickly and directly damaged or ended the careers and income of scores of individuals working in the film industry.

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5 December 1848 California Gold Rush: In a message to the United States Congress, U.S. President James K. Polk confirms that large amounts of gold had been discovered in California.

California Gold Rush

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• California gold rush

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6 December 1768 The first edition of the Encyclop?dia Britannica is published.

Encyclop?dia_Britannica