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9 February 1951 – Geochang massacre: Korean War

Geochang massacre

1951 massacre of unarmed civilians by South Korean forces during the Korean War

The Geochang massacre (Korean: 거창 양민학살 사건,^[3][4] Hanja: 居昌良民虐殺事件) was a massacre conducted by the third battalion of the 9th regiment of the 11th Division of the South Korean Army between 9 February 1951 and 11 February 1951 of 719 unarmed citizens in Geochang, South Gyeongsang district of South Korea.^[1][5][6] The victims included 385 children.^[1] The 11th Division also conducted the Sancheong-Hamyang massacre two days earlier. The general commanding the division was Choe Deok-sin.^[7]

On February 8 the 3rd Battalion, 9th Regiment, 11th Division of the South Korean army, called the "Hwarang Division", occupied Kwaejong-ri, Simon Sub-County. The guerrilla unit under the Sanchong County Party Committee had temporarily controlled Sinwon County before their brief engagement with the South Korean army during their withdrawal from the region.

On February 10, the "Hwang Division" rounded up 136 men, from six villages in the region, and brought them to the nearby Paksin Valley where they were all killed with machine guns. On February 11, all those who remained in the region were gathered at the playground of the Sinwon Primary School under the pretense of evacuation. They were taken to a remote mountain valley and all shot to death. Most of the victims were old people, women, and children. Only the families of South Korean army members, local police, and public officials were spared.

In an effort to cover up the massacre, the South Korean army burned the victims' bodies and bombed a nearby mountain slope in order to cover them with soil. Sin Song Mo, the then minister of defense of South Korea, downplayed the massacre by claiming that the South Korean army had eliminated "communist bandits", not innocent civilians. Attempting to minimize his complicity in the massacre, the Commander of the 11th Division, Kim Jong-won, said: "Could anyone issue such an order, which goes against common sense?"^[8]

In March 1951, Shin Chung-mok (ko), a leading assembly lawmaker from Geochang reported the massacre to the National Assembly against the South Korean Army's cover up.^[2][5][9] The National Assembly's special investigation team investigated, but was hampered by the South Korean Army's interruption.^[2][5] Shin was arrested and sentenced to death in an Army court martial.^[9] In May 1951, the second investigation team was dispatched by the National Assembly and they reported the South Korean Army involvement.^[5] After the investigation, Major Han and Colonel Oh Ik-gyun were sentenced to life in prison by a military court.^[5] President Syngman Rhee subsequently granted clemency to the criminals.^[5] This massacre is pointed out as an example of oppression under his rule.^[10]

In April 2004, the Geochang Massacre Memorial Park was founded in memory of the victims, in Geochang.^[1][11]

On 20 February 2006, the National Archives and Records Service reported the files about the massacre were found.^[6]

In 2001, a local court ordered the South Korean government to pay reparations to the victims' families.^[4] On 18 May 2004, a general court ruled that a charge of massacre against the South Korean government was barred by limitation.^[4]

On 5 June 2008, the South Korean Supreme Court confirmed that the charge was barred by limitation.^[3]

In June 2010, An Jeong-a, a researcher for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, disclosed National Defense Ministry official documents on his thesis that the massacre had been done under official South Korean Army order in order to annihilate citizens living in the guerrilla influenced area.^[12] On September 9, 2010, An was fired for disclosing Geochang massacre documents.^[12] The National Defense Ministry accused An of disclosing the documents which he had been only permitted to view under the condition of nondisclosure.^[12]

In the late 1950s, Kim Jong-won was sentenced to four years in prison for his involvement in a sniper attack on Vice President Chang Myon. He served his sentence at Seodaemun Prison. Jon-won was released from prison on health grounds in December 1961, since he was suffering diabetes. He died in January 1964.^[13]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} 편히 영면하소서!'..거창사건 희생자 위령제. Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). 2009-04-17. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Stueck, William (12 September 2010). The Korean War in world history. Univ Pr of Kentucky. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-8131-2306-6.
3. ^ ^{a b} 대법 "거창양민학살사건 국가배상 책임 없다. Dong-a Ilbo (in Korean). 2008-06-05. Archived from the original on 2011-06-08. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
4. ^ ^{a b c} 거창양민학살사건 국가 배상의무 없다. Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). 2004-05-18. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "SURVIVOR Hundreds were killed in a 1951 massacre. One man is left to remember". JoongAng Daily. 2003-02-10. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Records throw light on modern Korea's history Detailed archival documents found at government offices". JoongAng Daily. 2006-02-21. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
7. ^ 산청 시천면 양민학살, 어떤 사건인가? 아녀자, 어린이 대부분...알려진 산청 함양사건과는 별개 출처 : 산청 시천면 양민학살, 어떤 사건인가? - 오마이뉴스. Ohmynews (in Korean). 2000-05-16. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
8. ^ Ri, In-mo (1997). My Life and Faith. Democratic People's Republic of Korea: Foreign Languages Publishing House. p. 133.
9. ^ ^{a b} Stueck, William (12 September 2010). The Korean War in world history. Univ Pr of Kentucky. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8131-2306-6.
10. ^ "Outlook Remembering our father We have forgotten our founding father, the man who helped give birth to our democracy and its market economy. That is shameful". JoongAng Daily. 2007-04-27. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
11. ^ "2008 외국어 관광안내표기 용례집" (PDF). Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of the Republic of Korea. 2008. p. 28/278. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2010-07-20.(in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and English)
12. ^ ^{a b c} ‘진실 공개’한 직원 내쫓은 진실위. Hankyoreh (in Korean). 2010-10-11. Retrieved 2013-04-06.
13. ^ "이승만 덕에 한평생 편히 살았던 '전직 일본군' 김종원". 시사IN, 시사인 (in Korean). 2021-05-22. Retrieved 2023-05-30.

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10 February 1964 – Melbourne-Voyager collision: The aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne collides with the destroyer HMAS Voyager off the south coast of New South Wales, Australia.

Melbourne-Voyager collision

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11 February 1979 – Islamic revolution of Iran establishes an Islamic theocracy under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.

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12 February 1934 – The Austrian Civil War begins.

Austrian Civil War

1934 civil war within the First Austrian Republic

This article is about the February 1934 violence between the right-wing government and socialist forces. For the July 1934 Nazi violence, see July Putsch.

The Austrian Civil War (German: Österreichischer Bürgerkrieg) of 12–15 February 1934, also known as the February Uprising (Februar Aufstand) or the February Fights (Februarkämpfe), was a series of clashes in the First Austrian Republic between the forces of the authoritarian right-wing government of Engelbert Dollfuss and the Republican Protection League (Republikanischer Schutzbund), the banned paramilitary arm of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria. The fighting started when League members fired on the Austrian police who were attempting to enter the Social Democrats' party headquarters in Linz to search for weapons. It spread from there to Vienna and other industrial centres in eastern and central Austria. The superior numbers and firepower of the Austrian police and Federal Army quickly put an end to the uprising. The overall death toll is estimated at about 350.^[1]

The socialists' defeat led to arrests, executions and the banning of the Social Democratic Party. In May 1934, Austria's democratic constitution was replaced by the Austrofascist constitution of the Federal State of Austria, with the Fatherland Front as the only legal party.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b} Brook-Shepherd, Gordon (December 1996). The Austrians: A Thousand-Year Odyssey. HarperCollins. p. 281. ISBN 0-00-638255-X.
3. ^ Jelavich, Barbara (1987). Modern Austria: Empire & Republic 1815–1986. Cambridge University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0521316255.

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14 February 1981 – Stardust Disaster: A fire in a Dublin nightclub kills 48 people

Stardust Disaster

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15 February 1804 – The Serbian revolution begins

Serbian revolution

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16 February 1957 – The "Toddlers' Truce", a controversial television close down between 6.00 pm and 7.00 pm is abolished in the United Kingdom.

Toddlers' Truce

British TV scheduling policy (1946–1957)

The Toddlers' Truce was an early British television scheduling policy that required transmissions to terminate for an hour each weekday between 6.00pm and 7.00pm – after the end of children's broadcasting and the start of the evening programmes – so that young children could be put to bed.^[1] The policy lasted throughout the post-war period until 16 February 1957.^[1] It was named after toddlers, children aged between 12 and 36 months.

1. ^ ^{a b} "16 February 1957: The "Toddlers' Truce" comes to an end". MoneyWeek. Retrieved 13 June 2021.

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18 February 1983 – Thirteen people die and one is seriously injured in the Wah Mee Massacre in Seattle, Washington. It is said to be the largest robbery-motivated mass-murder in U.S. history.

Wah Mee massacre

1983 robbery and mass murder in Seattle, Washington

This article uses Western name order when mentioning individuals.

The Wah Mee massacre was a mass shooting that occurred during the night of February 18–19, 1983, in the Wah Mee gambling club at the Louisa Hotel in Seattle, Washington, United States. Fourteen people were bound, robbed and shot by three gunmen, 22-year-old Kwan Fai "Willie" Mak (Chinese: 麥群輝; pinyin: Mài Qúnhuī; jyutping: mak6 kwan4 fai1), 20-year old Keung Kin "Benjamin" Ng (Chinese: 伍強健; pinyin: Wǔ Qiángjiàn; jyutping: ng5 koeng4 gin6) and 25-year-old Wai Chiu "Tony" Ng (Chinese: 伍偉超; pinyin: Wǔ Wěichāo; jyutping: ng5 wai5 ciu1; no relation). Thirteen of the victims died, but 61-year-old Wai Yok Chin (Chinese: 陳蔚鈺), a former U.S. Navy sailor and Pai Gow dealer at the Wah Mee, survived to testify against the three in the separate high-profile trials held between 1983 and 1985.

Mak and Benjamin Ng were both given life imprisonment, after Mak's initial death sentence was overturned in 1988, while Tony Ng received a 30-year sentence, serving 28 years before he was released and deported to his native Hong Kong in 2014. It remains the deadliest mass murder in the history of Washington State.^[2]

1. ^ Turner, Wallace (25 August 1983). "20-YEAR-OLD IS CONVICTED IN DEATHS OF 13 IN SEATTLE". The New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
2. ^ Chew, Ron (1983-09-15). "Willie Mak goes on trial". International Examiner. Retrieved 2024-03-20.

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19 February 1978 – Egyptian forces raid Larnaca International Airport in an attempt to intervene in a hijacking, without authorisation from the Republic of Cyprus authorities. The Cypriot National Guard and Police forces kill 15 Egyptian commandos and destroy the Egyptian C-130 transport plane in open combat.

Egyptian raid on Larnaca International Airport

1978 accidental shootout between Egyptian and Cypriot special forces in Larnaca, Cyprus

On 19 February 1978, Egyptian special forces raided Larnaca International Airport near Larnaca, Cyprus, in an attempt to intervene in a hijacking. Earlier, two assassins had killed prominent Egyptian newspaper editor Yusuf Sibai and then captured as hostages several Arabs who were attending a convention in Nicosia.^[3] As Cypriot forces were trying to negotiate with the hostage-takers at the airport, Egyptian troops began their own assault without authorization from the Cypriots. The unauthorized raid resulted in the Egyptians and the Cypriots exchanging gunfire, killing or injuring more than 20 of the Egyptian commandos.^[3] As a result, Egypt and Cyprus severed political ties for several years after the incident.

1. ^ "Ottawa Citizen - Google News Archive Search".
2. ^ "Up to 15 Egyptian Commandos die Trying to Free Hostages on Jet when Cypriot Soldiers Open Fire". The New York Times. 20 February 1978.
3. ^ ^{a b c} "1978: Egyptian forces die in Cyprus gunfight". BBC. 19 February 1978. Retrieved 2 February 2008.

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21 February 1916 – World War I: In France, the Battle of Verdun begins.

Battle of Verdun

Battle on the Western Front during the First World War

For the battle during the French Revolution, see Battle of Verdun (1792).

The Battle of Verdun (French: Bataille de Verdun [bataj də vɛʁdœ̃]; German: Schlacht um Verdun [ʃlaxt ʔʊm ˈvɛɐ̯dœ̃]) was fought from 21 February to 18 December 1916 on the Western Front in France. The battle was the longest of the First World War and took place on the hills north of Verdun-sur-Meuse. The German 5th Army attacked the defences of the Fortified Region of Verdun (RFV, Région Fortifiée de Verdun) and those of the French Second Army on the right (east) bank of the Meuse. Using the experience of the Second Battle of Champagne in 1915, the Germans planned to capture the Meuse Heights, an excellent defensive position, with good observation for artillery-fire on Verdun. The Germans hoped that the French would commit their strategic reserve to recapture the position and suffer catastrophic losses at little cost to the German infantry.

Poor weather delayed the beginning of the attack until 21 February but the Germans captured Fort Douaumont in the first three days. The advance then slowed for several days, despite inflicting many French casualties. By 6 March, 20+1⁄2 French divisions were in the RFV and a more extensive defence in depth had been organised. Philippe Pétain ordered there to be no retreat and that German attacks were to be counter-attacked, despite this exposing French infantry to the German artillery. By 29 March, French guns on the west bank had begun a constant bombardment of Germans on the east bank, causing many infantry casualties. The German offensive was extended to the west bank of the Meuse to gain observation and eliminate the French artillery firing over the river but the attacks failed to reach their objectives.

In early May, the Germans changed tactics again and made local attacks and counter-attacks; the French recaptured part of Fort Douaumont but the Germans ejected them and took many prisoners. The Germans tried alternating their attacks on either side of the Meuse and in June captured Fort Vaux. The Germans advanced towards the last geographical objectives of the original plan, at Fleury-devant-Douaumont and Fort Souville, driving a salient into the French defences. Fleury was captured and the Germans came within 2.5 mi (4 km) of the Verdun citadel but in July the offensive was limited to provide troops, artillery and ammunition for the Battle of the Somme, leading to a similar transfer of the French Tenth Army to the Somme front. From 23 June to 17 August, Fleury changed hands sixteen times and a German attack on Fort Souville failed. The offensive was reduced further but to keep French troops away from the Somme, ruses were used to disguise the change.

In September and December, French counter-offensives recaptured much ground on the east bank and recovered Fort Douaumont and Fort Vaux. The battle lasted for 302 days, one of the longest and costliest in human history. In 2000, Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann calculated that the French suffered 377,231 casualties and the Germans 337,000, a total of 714,231 and an average of 70,000 a month. In 2014, William Philpott wrote of 714,000 casualties suffered by both sides during the Battle of Verdun in 1916 and that about 1,250,000 casualties were suffered in the vicinity of Verdun in the war. In France, the battle came to symbolise the determination of the French Army and the destructiveness of the war.

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22 February 2011 – An earthquake measuring 6.3 in magnitude strikes Christchurch, New Zealand, killing 181 people.

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23 February 2005 – The controversial French law on colonialism is passed, requiring teachers to teach the "positive values of colonialism". After public outcry, it is repealed at the beginning of 2006.

French law on colonialism

The 23 February 2005 French law on colonialism (French: loi n° 2005-158 du 23 février 2005 portant reconnaissance de la Nation et contribution nationale en faveur des Français rapatriés, "Law No. 2005-158 of 23 February 2005 regarding recognition of the Nation and national contribution in favour of the French repatriates") was an act passed by the National Assembly, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers a requirement to teach the "positive values" of colonialism to their students (Article 4, Paragraph 2). The law, particularly the aforementioned paragraph and Articles 1 and 13, created a public uproar and drew massive opposition from the left, and Article 4, Paragraph 2 was repealed by president Jacques Chirac (UMP)^[1] at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of historical revisionism from various teachers and historians, including Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Claude Liauzu, Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison and Benjamin Stora. Its Article 13 was also criticized as it supported former Organisation armée secrète (OAS) militants.

1. ^ Lotem, Itay (25 January 2016). "A decade after the riots, France has rewritten its colonial history". theconversation.com. Retrieved 2020-10-24.

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24 February 1989 – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini offers a US$3 million bounty for the death of The Satanic Verses author Salman Rushdie.

The Satanic Verses controversy

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25 February 1986 – People Power Revolution: President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos flees the nation after 20 years of rule; Corazon Aquino becomes the Philippines' first woman president.

People Power Revolution

Series of popular demonstrations in the Philippines in 1986 that overthrew Ferdinand Marcos

"EDSA Revolution" redirects here. For other uses, see EDSA Revolution (disambiguation). For other uses of People Power, see People power (disambiguation).

The People Power Revolution, also known as the EDSA Revolution^[a] or the February Revolution,^[4][5][6][7] was a series of popular demonstrations in the Philippines, mostly in Metro Manila, from February 22 to 25, 1986. There was a sustained campaign of civil resistance against regime violence and electoral fraud. The nonviolent revolution led to the departure of Ferdinand Marcos, the end of his 20-year dictatorship and the restoration of democracy in the Philippines.

It is also referred to as the Yellow Revolution^[8] due to the presence of yellow ribbons during demonstrations (in reference to the Tony Orlando and Dawn song "Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree") as a symbol of protest following the assassination of Filipino senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr.^[9] in August 1983 upon his return to the Philippines from exile. It was widely seen as a victory of the people against two decades of presidential rule by President Marcos, and made news headlines as "the revolution that surprised the world".^[10]

The majority of the demonstrations took place on a long stretch of Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, more commonly known by its acronym EDSA, in Metro Manila from February 22 to 25, 1986. They involved over two million Filipino civilians, as well as several political and military groups, and religious groups led by Cardinal Jaime Sin, the Archbishop of Manila, along with Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines President Cardinal Ricardo Vidal, the Archbishop of Cebu.

The protests, fueled by the resistance and opposition after years of governance by President Marcos and his cronies, ended with the ruler, his family, and some of their supporters fleeing to exile in Hawaii; and Ninoy Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, inaugurated as the eleventh President of the Philippines.^[11]

1. ^ ^{a b} Sison, Jose Maria (February 24, 2006). "It was a convergence of various forces". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
2. ^ Araullo, Carolina (March 2, 2000). "Left was at Edsa and long before". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
3. ^ Suarez, Miguel (February 26, 1986). "Marcos' last days filled with errors and humiliation". The Evening Independent. Associated Press. Retrieved August 4, 2014. She (Imelda) did not tell the crowd by that time all but a few thousand soldiers and officers, mostly those in the presidential guard, had by then turn against Marcos to join Mrs. Aquino's "people power" revolution
4. ^ "G.R. No. 88211". www.lawphil.net. Archived from the original on August 3, 2022. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
5. ^ Ileto, Reynold C. (June 1993). "The 'Unfinished Revolution' in Philippine Political Discourse". 東南アジア研究. 31 (1): 62–82. hdl:2433/56488. ISSN 0563-8682. Retrieved September 29, 2022.
6. ^ "G.R. No. L-82380 April 29, 1988 - AYER PRODUCTIONS PTY. LTD., ET AL. v. IGNACIO M. CAPULONG, ET AL.: April 1988 - Philippine Supreme Court Decisions". www.chanrobles.com.
7. ^ "Speech of President Corazon Aquino on the EDSA Flag Raising, February 25, 1987 | GOVPH". February 25, 1987. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
8. ^ FRIEND, THEODORE (1988). "The "Yellow Revolution": Its Mixed Historical Legacy". Philippine Studies. 36 (2): 166–182. JSTOR 42633078 – via JSTOR.
9. ^ "The Original People Power Revolution". QUARTET p. 77. Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. Retrieved February 28, 2008.
10. ^ Kumar, Ravindra (2004), Mahatma Gandhi at the Close of Twentieth Century, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., p. 168, ISBN 978-81-261-1736-9, retrieved December 2, 2007.
11. ^ "Edsa people Power 1 Philippines". Angela Stuart-Santiago. Archived from the original on December 13, 2007. Retrieved December 3, 2007.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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26 February 1914 – HMHS Britannic, sister to the RMS Titanic, is launched at Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast.

HMHS Britannic

Olympic-class ocean liner

For other White Star liners with this name, see SS Britannic (1874) and MV Britannic (1929).

"RMS Britannic" redirects here. Not to be confused with RMS Britannia.

HMHS Britannic (/brɪˈtænɪk/) was the third and final vessel of the White Star Line's Olympic class of steamships and the second White Star ship to bear the name Britannic. She was the youngest sister of the RMS Olympic and the RMS Titanic and was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner. She was operated as a hospital ship from 1915 until her sinking near the Greek island of Kea, in the Aegean Sea, in November 1916. At the time she was the largest hospital ship in the world.^{[not verified in body]}

Britannic was launched just before the start of the First World War. She was designed to be the safest of the three ships with design changes made during construction due to lessons learned from the sinking of the Titanic. She was laid up at her builders, Harland and Wolff, in Belfast for many months before being requisitioned as a hospital ship. In 1915 and 1916 she served between the United Kingdom and the Dardanelles.

On the morning of 21 November 1916 she hit a naval mine of the Imperial German Navy near the Greek island of Kea and sank 55 minutes later, killing 30 people. There were 1,066 people on board; the 1,036 survivors were rescued from the water and lifeboats. Britannic was the largest ship lost in the First World War.^[3]

After the First World War the White Star Line was compensated for the loss of Britannic by the award of SS Bismarck as part of postwar reparations; she entered service as RMS Majestic.

The wreck was located and explored by Jacques Cousteau in 1975. The vessel is the largest intact passenger ship on the seabed in the world.^[4] It was bought in 1996 and is currently owned by Simon Mills, a maritime historian.

1. ^ Lynch (2012), p. 161.
2. ^ "HMHS Britannic (1914) Builder Data". MaritimeQuest. Archived from the original on 2 September 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
3. ^ Vladisavljevic, Brana. "Titanic's sister ship Britannic could become a diving attraction in Greece". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
4. ^ Chirnside 2011, p. 275.

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27 February 2004 – The initial version of the John Jay Report, with details about the Catholic sexual abuse scandal in the United States, is released.

John Jay Report

The Nature and Scope of the Problem of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Catholic Priests and Deacons in the United States, commonly known as the John Jay Report, is a 2004 report by the John Jay College of Criminal Justice, commissioned by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, based on surveys completed by the Roman Catholic dioceses in the United States.^[1] The initial version of the report was posted on the Internet on February 27, 2004, with corrections and revisions posted on April 16. The printed version was published in June 2004.^[2] The church's own John Jay Report is online at John Jay Report.

1. ^ John Jay College of Criminal Justice (2004), "Executive Summary" (PDF), The Nature and Scope of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Catholic Priests and Deacons in the United States 1950–2002, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, ISBN 1-57455-627-4, retrieved February 7, 2012
2. ^ John Jay College of Criminal Justice (2004), The Nature and Scope of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Catholic Priests and Deacons in the United States 1950–2002 (PDF), United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, ISBN 1-57455-627-4, retrieved February 7, 2012

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28 February 2005 – A suicide bombing at a police recruiting centre in Al Hillah, Iraq kills 127.

2005 Al Hillah bombing

Suicide bombing at a police recruiting center in Al Hillah, Iraq

The Al Hillah bombing killed 127 people, chiefly men lining up to join the Iraqi police forces, at the recruiting centre on February 28, 2005 in Al Hillah, Iraq.

The bombing caused a worsening of Iraqi-Jordanian diplomatic relations after it was learned that suicide bomber, Raed Mansour al-Banna, had come from Jordan. Banna's family in Jordan gave him a heroic funeral, angering many Iraqi Shia. Thousands protested outside the Jordanian embassy in Baghdad and demanded it close, and the dispute led to both countries recalling their respective ambassadors.^[1]

Al-Banna had earlier tried to enter the United States in July 2003, although he was turned away at O'Hare Airport as he possessed "multiple terrorist risk factors".^[2]

1. ^ Iraq-Jordan Dispute Deepens; Diplomats Recalled in Aftermath of Suicide Bombing^{[dead link]}
2. ^ Temple-Raston, Dina. The Jihad Next Door: The Lackawanna Six and Rough Justice in the Age of Terror, 2007

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29 February: Leap Year

Leap year

Calendar year containing an additional day

For other uses, see Leap year (disambiguation).

A leap year (also known as an intercalary year or bissextile year) is a calendar year that contains an additional day (or, in the case of a lunisolar calendar, a month) compared to a common year. The 366th day (or 13th month) is added to keep the calendar year synchronised with the astronomical year or seasonal year.^[1] Since astronomical events and seasons do not repeat in a whole number of days, calendars having a constant number of days each year will unavoidably drift over time with respect to the event that the year is supposed to track, such as seasons. By inserting ("intercalating") an additional day—a leap day—or month—a leap month—into some years, the drift between a civilization's dating system and the physical properties of the Solar System can be corrected.

An astronomical year lasts slightly less than 3651/4 days. The historic Julian calendar has three common years of 365 days followed by a leap year of 366 days, by extending February to 29 days rather than the common 28. The Gregorian calendar, the world's most widely used civil calendar, makes a further adjustment for the small error in the Julian algorithm. Each leap year has 366 days instead of 365. This extra leap day occurs in each year that is a multiple of 4, except for years evenly divisible by 100 but not by 400.

In the lunisolar Hebrew calendar, Adar Aleph, a 13th lunar month, is added seven times every 19 years to the twelve lunar months in its common years to keep its calendar year from drifting through the seasons. In the Solar Hijri and Bahá'í calendars, a leap day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the March equinox.

The term leap year probably comes from the fact that a fixed date in the Gregorian calendar normally advances one day of the week from one year to the next, but the day of the week in the 12 months following the leap day (from 1 March through 28 February of the following year) will advance two days due to the extra day, thus leaping over one day in the week.^[2][3] For example, Christmas Day (25 December) will be on a Wednesday in 2024, Thursday in 2025, Friday in 2026, and Saturday in 2027, but then will "leap" over Sunday to fall on a Monday in 2028.

The length of a day is also occasionally corrected by inserting a leap second into Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) because of variations in Earth's rotation period. Unlike leap days, leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule because variations in the length of the day are not entirely predictable.

Leap years can present a problem in computing, known as the leap year bug, when a year is not correctly identified as a leap year or when 29 February is not handled correctly in logic that accepts or manipulates dates.

1. ^ Meeus, Jean (1998), Astronomical Algorithms, Willmann-Bell, p. 62
2. ^ Harper, Douglas (2012), "leap year", Online Etymology Dictionary, archived from the original on 21 August 2012, retrieved 15 August 2012
3. ^ "leap year", Oxford US Dictionary, archived from the original on 13 September 2015, retrieved 6 January 2020

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1 March 1936 – The Hoover Dam is completed.

Hoover Dam

Dam in Clark County, Nevada, and Mohave County, Arizona, US

For other uses, see Hoover Dam (disambiguation).

"Boulder Dam" redirects here. For other uses, see Boulder Dam (disambiguation).

Dam in Arizona, U.S.

Hoover Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona. Constructed between 1931 and 1936, during the Great Depression, it was dedicated on September 30, 1935, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers, and cost over 100 lives. In bills passed by Congress during its construction, it was referred to as the Hoover Dam, after President Herbert Hoover, but was named the Boulder Dam by the Roosevelt administration. In 1947, the name Hoover Dam was restored by Congress.

Since about 1900, the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power. In 1928, Congress authorized the project. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium named Six Companies, Inc., which began construction in early 1931. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques used were unproven. The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned the dam over to the federal government on March 1, 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead and is located near Boulder City, Nevada, a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project, about 30 mi (48 km) south-east of Las Vegas, Nevada. The dam's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California. Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction, with 7 million tourists a year.^[7] The heavily traveled U.S. Route 93 (US 93) ran along the dam's crest until October 2010, when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened.

1. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 30, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference meadfaq was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "What you need to know about Lake Mead's falling water levels". June 27, 2021.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference nrhp was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference nhlsum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Construction of Hoover Dam". Water and Power Associates.
7. ^ "Nevada and Arizona: Hoover Dam (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved July 14, 2022.

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2 March 1943 – World War II: Battle of the Bismarck Sea – United States and Australian forces sink Japanese convoy ships.

Battle of the Bismarck Sea

1943 Allied attack on a Japanese convoy

The Battle of the Bismarck Sea (2–4 March 1943) took place in the South West Pacific Area (SWPA) during World War II when aircraft of the U.S. Fifth Air Force and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) attacked a Japanese convoy carrying troops to Lae, New Guinea. Most of the Japanese task force was destroyed, and Japanese troop losses were heavy.

The Japanese convoy was a result of a Japanese Imperial General Headquarters decision in December 1942 to reinforce their position in the South West Pacific. A plan was devised to move some 6,900 troops from Rabaul directly to Lae. The plan was understood to be risky, because Allied air power in the area was strong, but it was decided to proceed because otherwise the troops would have to be landed a considerable distance away and march through inhospitable swamp, mountain and jungle terrain without roads before reaching their destination. On 28 February 1943, the convoy – comprising eight destroyers and eight troop transports with an escort of approximately 100 fighter aircraft – set out from Simpson Harbour in Rabaul.

The Allies had detected preparations for the convoy, and naval codebreakers in Melbourne (FRUMEL) and Washington, D.C., had decrypted and translated messages indicating the convoy's intended destination and date of arrival. The Allied Air Forces had developed new techniques, such as skip bombing, that they hoped would improve the chances of successful air attack on ships. They detected and shadowed the convoy, which came under sustained air attack on 2–3 March 1943. Follow-up attacks by PT boats and aircraft were made on 4 March on life boats and rafts. All eight transports and four of the escorting destroyers were sunk. Of 6,900 troops who were badly needed in New Guinea, only about 1,200 made it to Lae. Another 2,700 were rescued by destroyers and submarines and returned to Rabaul. The Japanese made no further attempts to reinforce Lae by ship, greatly hindering their ultimately unsuccessful efforts to stop Allied offensives in New Guinea.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gillison, p. 695 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Gillison 1962, p. 696

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3 March 1923 – TIME magazine is published for the first time.

Time (magazine)

American news magazine and website

"TIME" redirects here. For time as a measure, see Time. For other uses, see Time (disambiguation). Not to be confused with The Times.

Time (stylized in all caps as TIME) is an American news magazine based in New York City. It was published weekly for nearly a century. Starting in March 2020, it transitioned to every other week.^[2][3] It was first published in New York City on March 3, 1923, and for many years it was run by its influential co-founder, Henry Luce.

A European edition (Time Europe, formerly known as Time Atlantic) is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa, and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition (Time Asia) is based in Hong Kong.^[4] The South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney.

Since 2018, Time has been owned by Salesforce founder Marc Benioff, who acquired it from Meredith Corporation. Benioff currently publishes the magazine through the company Time USA, LLC.

1. ^ "Consumer Magazines".
2. ^ "Covers from 2020". Time. Archived from the original on February 3, 2022. Retrieved February 3, 2022.
3. ^ "On This Day: Time magazine publishes for first time". UPI. March 3, 2023. Retrieved November 7, 2023.
4. ^ "Time Asia (Hong Kong) Limited – Buying Office, Service Company, Distributor from Hong Kong". HKTDC. Archived from the original on July 14, 2020. Retrieved January 14, 2020.

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4 March 1913 – First Balkan War: The Greek army engages the Turks at Bizani, resulting in victory two days later.

First Balkan War

1912–1913 war between the Balkan League and the Ottoman Empire

The First Balkan War lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and involved actions of the Balkan League (the Kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan states' combined armies overcame the initially numerically inferior (significantly superior by the end of the conflict) and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, achieving rapid success.

The war was a comprehensive and unmitigated disaster for the Ottomans, who lost 83% of their European territories and 69% of their European population.^[10] As a result of the war, the League captured and partitioned almost all of the Ottoman Empire's remaining territories in Europe. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albania, which dissatisfied the Serbs.^{[citation needed]} Bulgaria, meanwhile, was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia and attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 16 June 1913, which provoked the start of the Second Balkan War.

During the war, many civilians, overwhelmingly Muslim Turks, were either killed or forced to flee their homes. The highly politicized and disorganized units of the Ottoman army were quite incapable of evacuating the civilians in the war zone. This situation left many civilians in the occupied areas defenseless against the invading armies of the Balkan League. Although there are discussions about the exact amount of civilian casualties, when the war ended great changes occurred in the demographic makeup of the Balkan region.^[11]

1. ^ Hall 2000, p. 16
2. ^ Dennis, Brad (3 July 2019). "Armenians and the Cleansing of Muslims 1878–1915: Influences from the Balkans". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 39 (3): 411–431. doi:10.1080/13602004.2019.1654186. ISSN 1360-2004. S2CID 202282745.
3. ^ Hall 2000, p. 18
4. ^ Erickson 2003, p. 70
5. ^ Erickson 2003, p. 69.
6. ^ Erickson 2003, p. 52.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Hall 2000, p. 135
8. ^ Βιβλίο εργασίας 3, Οι Βαλκανικοί Πόλεμοι, ΒΑΛΕΡΙ ΚΟΛΕΦ and ΧΡΙΣΤΙΝΑ ΚΟΥΛΟΥΡΗ, translation by ΙΟΥΛΙΑ ΠΕΝΤΑΖΟΥ, CDRSEE, Thessaloniki 2005, p. 120, (Greek). Retrieved from http://www.cdsee.org
9. ^ ^{a b} Erickson 2003, p. 329
10. ^ Balkan Savaşları ve Balkan Savaşları'nda Bulgaristan, Süleyman Uslu
11. ^ "1.1. The ethnography and national aspirations of the Balkans". macedonia.kroraina.com.

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5 March 1970 – The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty goes into effect after ratification by 43 nations.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

Redirect to:

• Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

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6 March 1836 – Texas Revolution: Battle of the Alamo – After a thirteen day siege by an army of 3,000 Mexican troops, the 187 Texas volunteers, including frontiersman Davy Crockett and colonel Jim Bowie, defending the Alamo are killed and the fort is captured.

Battle of the Alamo

Major battle of the Texas Revolution

"Remember the Alamo" redirects here. For the song, see Remember the Alamo (song).

"Alamo" and "The Alamo" redirect here. For the site of this battle, see Alamo Mission. For other uses, see Alamo (disambiguation).

The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 – March 6, 1836) was a pivotal event and military engagement in the Texas Revolution. Following a 13-day siege, Mexican troops under President General Antonio López de Santa Anna reclaimed the Alamo Mission near San Antonio de Béxar (modern-day San Antonio, Texas, United States), killing most of the occupants. Santa Anna's refusal to take prisoners during the battle inspired many Texians and Tejanos to join the Texian Army. Motivated by a desire for revenge, as well as their written desire to preserve a border open to immigration and the importation and practice of slavery, the Texians defeated the Mexican Army at the Battle of San Jacinto, on April 21, 1836, ending the conquering of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas by the newly formed Republic of Texas.

Several months previously, Texians, some of whom were legal settlers, but primarily illegal immigrants from the United States, had killed or driven out all Mexican troops in Mexican Texas. About one hundred Texians were then garrisoned at the Alamo. The Texian force grew slightly with the arrival of reinforcements led by eventual Alamo co-commanders James Bowie and William B. Travis. On February 23, approximately 1,500 Mexicans marched into San Antonio de Béxar as the first step in a campaign to retake Texas. For the next 10 days, the two armies engaged in several skirmishes with minimal casualties. Aware that his garrison could not withstand an attack by such a large force, Travis wrote multiple letters pleading for more men and supplies from Texas and from the United States, but the Texians were reinforced by fewer than a hundred men, because the United States had a treaty with Mexico at the time, and supplying troops and weapons would have been an overt act of war against Mexico.

In the early morning hours of March 6, the Mexican Army advanced on the Alamo. After repelling two attacks, the Texians were unable to fend off a third attack. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texian fighters withdrew into interior buildings. Those who were unable to reach these points were slain by the Mexican cavalry as they attempted to escape. Between five and seven Texians may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed. Several noncombatants were sent to Gonzales to spread word of the Texian defeat. The news sparked both a strong rush to join the Texian army and a panic, known as "The Runaway Scrape", in which the Texian army, most settlers, and the government of the new, self-proclaimed but officially unrecognized Republic of Texas fled eastward toward the U.S. ahead of the advancing Mexican Army.

Within Mexico, the battle has often been overshadowed by events from the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. In 19th-century Texas, the Alamo complex gradually became known as a battle site rather than a former mission. The Texas Legislature purchased the land and buildings in the early part of the 20th century and designated the Alamo chapel as an official Texas State Shrine. The Alamo has been the subject of numerous non-fiction works beginning in 1843. Most Americans, however, are more familiar with the myths and legends spread by many of the movie and television adaptations,^[6] including the 1950s Disney miniseries Davy Crockett and John Wayne's 1960 film The Alamo.

1. ^ ^{a b} Hardin (2010).
2. ^ "La Batalla del Álamo".
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference todish55 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Hardin (1994), p. 155.
5. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 136.
6. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 213.

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7 March 1965 – Bloody Sunday: A group of 600 civil rights marchers are forcefully broken up in Selma, Alabama.

Bloody Sunday (1965)

Redirect to:

• Selma to Montgomery marches#"Bloody Sunday" events

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8 March 1983 – President Ronald Reagan calls the Soviet Union an "evil empire".

Evil empire

Speculative fiction trope

For other uses, see Evil Empire.

An evil empire is a speculative fiction trope in which a major antagonist of the story is a technologically advanced nation, typically ruled by an evil emperor or empress, that aims to control the world or conquer some specific group. They are opposed by a hero from more common origins who uses their guile or the help of an underground resistance to fight them. Well-known examples are the Galactic Empire in Star Wars, which forms as a result of a fascist auto-coup which abolishes the liberal-democratic Galactic Republic and is opposed by the Rebel Alliance including Luke Skywalker,^[1] as well as the Empire of the Known Universe in Dune, whose Emperor plots the downfall of House Atreides, and is opposed by Paul Atreides.^[2]

The theme also often appears in video games. A recurring element of the Final Fantasy series is an evil empire as the primary antagonistic faction, starting with Final Fantasy II, which was itself inspired by Star Wars. It is a major aspect of the story of Final Fantasy VI in the form of the Gestahl Empire,^[3] proceeding onward to Final Fantasy XV, in which the empire of Niflheim conquers the kingdom of Lucis, forcing its heir, Noctis Lucis Caelum, to fight back and reclaim his homeland.^[4] In Mother 3, the protagonist Lucas has his home attacked by the villainous Pigmask Army, which seeks to turn animals into robotic Chimeras and brainwash the land's agrarian inhabitants via Happy Boxes.^[5]

The title has also been used as a nickname for the New York Yankees. The nickname originated from a comment made to the The New York Times by the then team president of the Boston Red Sox, Larry Lucchino, in December 2002.^[6]

1. ^ C. McDowell, John (2 July 2014). The Politics of Big Fantasy : the Ideologies of Star Wars, The Matrix and The Avengers. Jefferson, North Carolina. p. 86. ISBN 9780786474882. OCLC 878813081.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
2. ^ Final Frontier (ABDO Digital Hosted e-Book) . New York: ABDO Digital. September 2010. p. 22. ISBN 978-1617843532. OCLC 1003700847.
3. ^ Kohler, Chris (2015). Power-Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life. Yoshida, Shuhei. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 94–109. ISBN 9780486816425. OCLC 960760137.
4. ^ Caswell, Tom (2016-12-05). "Review: Final Fantasy XV is a tale of two games". GameZone. Retrieved 2022-03-08.
5. ^ Oxford, Nadia (2018-10-18). "What Mother 3 Taught Me About Death, Grieving, and Two-by-Fours". USgamer. Retrieved 2022-03-08.
6. ^ Griffin, John (2020-05-04). "How the Yankees became the Evil Empire". Pinstripe Alley. Retrieved 2024-04-08.

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9 March 1977 – The Hanafi Muslim Siege: In a thirty-nine hour standoff, armed Hanafi Muslims seize three Washington, D.C., buildings, killing two and taking 149 hostage.

1977 Hanafi Muslim Siege

Redirect to:

• 1977 Washington, D.C., attack and hostage taking

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10 March 2006 – The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter arrives at Mars.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

NASA spacecraft active since 2005

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a spacecraft designed to search for the existence of water on Mars and provide support for missions to Mars, as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program. It was launched from Cape Canaveral on August 12, 2005, at 11:43 UTC and reached Mars on March 10, 2006, at 21:24 UTC. In November 2006, after six months of aerobraking, it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase.

Mission objectives include observing the climate of Mars, investigating geologic forces, providing reconnaissance of future landing sites, and relaying data from surface missions back to Earth. To support these objectives, the MRO carries different scientific instruments, including three cameras, two spectrometers and a subsurface radar. As of July 29, 2023, the MRO has returned over 450 terabits of data, helped choose safe landing sites for NASA's Mars landers, discovered pure water ice in new craters and further evidence that water once flowed on the surface on Mars.^[3]

The spacecraft continues to operate at Mars, far beyond its intended design life. Due to its critical role as a high-speed data-relay for ground missions, NASA intends to continue the mission as long as possible, at least through the late 2020s. As of May 5, 2024, the MRO has been active at Mars for 6454 sols, or 18 years, 1 month and 25 days, and is the third longest-lived spacecraft to orbit Mars, after 2001 Mars Odyssey and Mars Express.

1. ^ "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Archived from the original on September 8, 2018. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Lyons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". NASA. Archived from the original on July 29, 2023. Retrieved July 29, 2023.

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11 March 2004 – Madrid train bombings: Simultaneous explosions on rush hour trains in Madrid, Spain, kill 191 people.

2004 Madrid train bombings

Terrorist attack on Madrid's suburban trains

The 2004 Madrid train bombings (also known in Spain as 11M) were a series of coordinated, nearly simultaneous bombings against the Cercanías commuter train system of Madrid, Spain, on the morning of 11 March 2004—three days before Spain's general elections. The explosions killed 193 people and injured around 2,050.^[1][2] The bombings constituted the deadliest terrorist attack carried out in the history of Spain and the deadliest in Europe since 1988.^[3] The attacks were carried out by individuals who opposed Spanish involvement in the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq.^{[4][5][6][7][8][9][10]}

Controversy regarding the handling and representation of the bombings by the government arose, with Spain's two main political parties—the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Partido Popular (PP)—accusing each other of concealing or distorting evidence for electoral reasons. The bombings occurred three days before general elections in which incumbent Prime Minister José María Aznar's PP was defeated.^[11][4] Immediately after the bombing, leaders of the PP claimed evidence indicating the Basque separatist organization ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) was responsible for the bombings,^[4][12][13] while the opposition claimed that the PP was trying to prevent the public from knowing it had been an Islamist attack, which would be interpreted as the direct result of Spain's involvement in Iraq, an unpopular war which the government had entered without the approval of the Spanish Parliament.^[14] The scale and precise planning of the attacks reared memories of the September 11 attacks.^[4]

Following the attacks, there were nationwide demonstrations and protests demanding that the government "tell the truth."^[15] The prevailing opinion of political analysts is that the Aznar administration lost the general elections as a result of the handling and representation of the terrorist attacks, rather than because of the bombings per se.^{[16][17][18][19]} Results published in The Review of Economics and Statistics by economist José García Montalvo^[20] seem to suggest that indeed the bombings had important electoral impact^[21] (turning the electoral outcome against the incumbent People's Party and handing government over to the Socialist Party, PSOE).

After 21 months of investigation, judge Juan del Olmo tried Moroccan national Jamal Zougam, among several others, for his participation carrying out the attack.^[22] Although claims were made that attacks were linked to al-Qaeda,^[23] investigations and probes conducted by Spanish officials did not find any links to al-Qaeda.^[5][7][8] Findings issued by the Spanish judiciary in September 2007 found 21 individuals of participating in the attacks, while rejecting the involvement of an external mastermind or direct al-Qaeda links.^{[24][25][26][27][28]}

1. ^ ^{a b} "El auto de procesamiento por el 11-M - Documentos" [The automatic processing for 11-M - Documents]. El Mundo (in Spanish). 11 April 2006.
2. ^ ZoomNews (in Spanish). The 192nd victim (Laura Vega) died in 2014, after a decade in coma in a hospital of Madrid. She was the last hospitalized injured person.
3. ^ Paul Hamilos; Mark Tran (31 October 2007). "21 guilty, seven cleared over Madrid train bombings". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Genzmer, Herbert; Kershner, Sybille; Schutz, Christian. Great Disasters. p. 197. ISBN 9781445410968.
5. ^ ^{a b} Elizabeth Nash (7 November 2006). "Madrid bombers 'were inspired by bin Laden address'". The Independent. UK. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 16 February 2010. While the bombers may have been inspired by bin Laden, a two-year investigation into the attacks has found no evidence that al-Qa'ida helped plan, finance or carry out the bombings, or even knew about them in advance. Ten bombs in backpacks and other small bags, such as gym bags, exploded. One bomb did not explode and was defused. The police did controlled explosions on three other bombs.
6. ^ "Trial Opens in Madrid for Train Bombings That Killed 191". KABC-TV Los Angeles. 15 February 2007. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. The cell was inspired by al-Qaida but had no direct links to it, nor did it receive financing from Osama bin Laden's terrorist organization, Spanish investigators say
7. ^ ^{a b} "Al Qaeda, Madrid bombs not linked: Spanish probe". Toronto Star. 9 March 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007 – via borrull.org.
8. ^ ^{a b} "Islam and terrorism". International Institute for Strategic Studies. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
9. ^ Javier Jordán; Robert Wesley (9 March 2006). "Terrorism Monitor | The Madrid Attacks: Results of Investigations Two Years Later". 4 (5). Jamestown Foundation. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
10. ^ "Madrid: The Aftermath: Spain admits bombs were the work of Islamists". The Independent. London, UK. 16 March 2004. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008.
11. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2004. Retrieved 16 December 2004.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
12. ^ Lago, I. (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) Del 11-M al 14-M: Los mecanismos del cambio electoral, pp. 12–13. Archived 23 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ "Selected bibliography on political analysis of the 11-M aftermath". El Mundo. Spain. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference multiref2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ Cf. Meso Ayeldi, K. "Teléfonos móviles e Internet, nuevas tecnologías para construir un espacio público contrainformativo: El ejemplo de los flash mob en la tarde del 13M" Universidad de La Laguna Archived 19 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine; accessed 1 June 2018.
16. ^ "El Periódico – 11M". Archived from the original on 18 April 2009.
17. ^ "El Periódico – 11M". Archived from the original on 18 April 2009.
18. ^ "El Periódico – 11M". Archived from the original on 18 April 2009.
19. ^ "Madrid Bombings and U.S. Policy – Brookings". Brookings.edu. 31 March 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
20. ^ "José García-Montalvo". 30 June 2015.
21. ^ Montalvo, José G. (2011). "Voting After the Bombings: A Natural Experiment on the Effect of Terrorist Attacks on Democratic Elections". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 93 (4): 1146–1154. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.717.8240. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00115. JSTOR 41349103. S2CID 57571182.
22. ^ "Del Olmo sólo tiene ya un presunto autor material del 11-M para sentar en el banquillo". El Mundo. Spain. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
23. ^ O'Neill, Sean (15 February 2007). "Spain furious as US blocks access to Madrid bombing 'chief'". The Times. London, UK. Archived from the original on 24 February 2007. Retrieved 16 February 2010. The al-Qaeda leader who created, trained and directed the terrorist cell that carried out the Madrid train bombings has been held in a CIA "ghost prison" for more than a year.
24. ^ Barrett, Jane (31 October 2007). "The biggest surprise was that two men originally accused of planning the attack were convicted only of belonging to a terrorist group, not of the Madrid killings... 'We're very surprised by the acquittal,' said Jose Maria de Pablos, attorney of a victims' association linked to conspiracy theories. 'If it wasn't them, we have to find out who it was. Somebody gave the order.'". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
25. ^ "ETA, Irak, Zougam, el explosivo... y otras claves de la sentencia del 11-M". El Mundo. Spain. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
26. ^ "El 11-M se queda sin autores intelectuales al quedar absueltos los tres acusados de serlo". El Mundo. Spain. 31 October 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
27. ^ "El final del principio en la investigación del 11-M". El Mundo. Spain. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
28. ^ "El tribunal del 11-M desbarata la tesis clave de la versión oficial en su sentencia". El Mundo. Spain. 31 October 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2011.

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12 March 1947 – The Truman Doctrine is proclaimed to help stem the spread of Communism.

Truman Doctrine

Anti-Soviet American Cold War foreign policy

The Truman Doctrine is an American foreign policy that pledges American "support for democracies against authoritarian threats."^[1] The doctrine originated with the primary goal of countering the growth of the Soviet bloc during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947,^[2] and further developed on July 4, 1948, when he pledged to oppose the communist rebellions in Greece and Soviet demands from Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations threatened by Moscow. It led to the formation of NATO in 1949. Historians often use Truman's speech to Congress on March 12, 1947 to date the start of the Cold War.^[3]

Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."^[4] Truman contended that because totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples, they automatically represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid, they would inevitably fall out of the United States' sphere of influence and into the communist bloc, with grave consequences throughout the region.

The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world.^[5] It shifted U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union from a wartime alliance to containment of Soviet expansion, as advocated by diplomat George Kennan.

1. ^ "The Truman Doctrine, 1947". Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, United States Department of State. Archived from the original on May 16, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference DM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "The Truman Doctrine's Significance". History on the Net. November 10, 2020. Archived from the original on May 1, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2020.
4. ^ Michael Beschloss (2006). Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents From The National Archives. Oxford University Press. pp. 194–199. ISBN 978-0-19-530959-1. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved October 27, 2015.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference MerrillTruDoct was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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13 March 1996 – Dunblane massacre: in Dunblane, Scotland, 16 Primary School children and 1 teacher are shot dead by a spree killer, Thomas Watt Hamilton who then committed suicide.

Dunblane massacre

Mass shooting in Dunblane, Scotland

The Dunblane massacre took place at Dunblane Primary School in Dunblane, near Stirling, Scotland, on 13 March 1996, when 43-year-old Thomas Hamilton shot dead 16 pupils and one teacher and injured 15 others before killing himself. It remains the deadliest mass shooting in British history.^[1]

Following the killings, public debate centred on gun control laws, including public petitions for a ban on private ownership of handguns and an official inquiry, which produced the 1996 Cullen Report.^[2]

The incident led to a public campaign, known as the Snowdrop Petition, which helped bring about legislation, specifically two new Firearms Acts, which outlawed the private ownership of most handguns within Great Britain with few exceptions.^[1] The UK Government instituted a temporary gun buyback programme which provided some compensation to lawful handgun owners.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Mass shootings and gun control". BBC News. 2 June 2010. Archived from the original on 1 April 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
2. ^ "Public inquiry into the shootings at Dunblane Primary School". gov.uk. Scottish Office. 16 October 1996. Archived from the original on 22 March 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2017.

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14 March 1978 – The Israeli Defense Force invades and occupies southern Lebanon, in Operation Litani.

Operation Litani

Redirect to:

• 1978 South Lebanon conflict

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16 March 1988 – Halabja poison gas attack: The Kurdish town of Halabjah in Iraq is attacked with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents on the orders of Saddam Hussein, killing 5000 people and injuring about 10000 people.

Halabja poison gas attack

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• Halabja massacre

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17 March 1860 – The First Taranaki War begins in Taranaki, New Zealand, a major phase of the New Zealand land wars.

First Taranaki War

1860s war between Māori and the New Zealand government

The First Taranaki War (also known as the North Taranaki War) was an armed conflict over land ownership and sovereignty that took place between Māori and the New Zealand government in the Taranaki district of New Zealand's North Island from March 1860 to March 1861.

The war was sparked by a dispute between the government and Māori landowners over the sale of a property at Waitara, but spread throughout the region. It was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as volunteer soldiers and militia, against Māori forces that fluctuated between a few hundred and about 1,500.^[1] Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Māori casualties totalled about 200, although the proportion of Māori casualties was higher.

The war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Although there were claims by the British that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable and humiliating result. Historians have also been divided on the result.^[2] Historian James Belich has claimed that the Māori succeeded in thwarting the British bid to impose sovereignty over them, and had therefore been victorious. But he said the Māori victory was a hollow one, leading to the invasion of the Waikato.

In its 1996 report to the Government on Taranaki land claims, the Waitangi Tribunal observed that the war was begun by the Government, which had been the aggressor and unlawful in its actions in launching an attack by its armed forces. An opinion sought by the tribunal from a senior constitutional lawyer stated that the Governor, Thomas Gore Browne, and certain officers were liable for criminal and civil charges for their actions.^[3] The term "First Taranaki War" is opposed by some historians, who refer only to the Taranaki Wars, rejecting suggestions that post-1861 conflict was a second war.^[4] The 1927 Royal Commission on Confiscated Land also referred to the hostilities between 1864 and 1866 as a continuation of the initial Taranaki war.^[5]

1. ^ Michael King (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-301867-1.
2. ^ Belich, James (1986). The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict (1st ed.). Auckland: Penguin. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-14-011162-X.
3. ^ "The Taranaki Report: Kaupapa Tuatahi by the Waitangi Tribunal, chapter 3" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
4. ^ James Belich, in "The New Zealand Wars" (1986) dismisses as "inappropriate" the description of later conflict as a second Taranaki war (pp. 120).
5. ^ "The Taranaki Report: Kaupapa Tuatahi by the Waitangi Tribunal, chapter 4" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.

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19 March 2008 – GRB 080319B: A cosmic burst that is the farthest object visible to the naked eye is briefly observed.

GRB 080319B

Gamma-ray burst in the constellation Boötes

GRB 080319B (also known as the Clarke event) was a gamma-ray burst (GRB) detected by the Swift satellite at 06:12 UTC on March 19, 2008. The burst set a new record for the farthest object that was observable with the naked eye:^[2] it had a peak visual apparent magnitude of 5.7 and remained visible to human eyes for approximately 30 seconds.^[3] The magnitude was brighter than 9.0 for approximately 60 seconds.^[4] If viewed from 1 AU away, it would have had a peak apparent magnitude of −67.57 (21 quadrillion times brighter than the Sun seen from Earth). It had an absolute magnitude of −38.6,^[5] beaten by GRB 220101A with −39.4 in 2023.^[6][7]

1. ^ "Gamma Ray Burst Coordinates Network". NASA. March 19, 2008. Archived from the original on March 30, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
2. ^ "NASA Satellite Detects Naked-Eye Explosion Halfway Across Universe". NASA. March 21, 2008. Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
3. ^ "Pi of the Sky observation of GRB080319B the brightest ever gamma-ray burst". Pi of the Sky. March 21, 2008. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
4. ^ "GRB 080319B light curve". vo.astronet.ru. April 1, 2008. Archived from the original on December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
5. ^ Woźniak, P. R.; Vestrand, W. T.; Panaitescu, A. D.; Wren, J. A.; Davis, H. R.; White, R. R. (2009). "Gamma-Ray Burst at the Extreme: "The Naked-Eye Burst" GRB 080319B". The Astrophysical Journal. 691 (1): 495–502. arXiv:0810.2481. Bibcode:2009ApJ...691..495W. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/1/495. ISSN 0004-637X.
6. ^ Jin, Zhi-Ping; Zhou, Hao; Wang, Yun; Geng, Jin-Jun; Covino, Stefano; Wu, Xue-Feng; Li, Xiang; Fan, Yi-Zhong; Wei, Da-Ming; Wei, Jian-Yan (June 26, 2023). "An optical–ultraviolet flare with absolute AB magnitude of −39.4 detected in GRB 220101A". Nature Astronomy. 7 (9): 1108–1115. Bibcode:2023NatAs...7.1108J. doi:10.1038/s41550-023-02005-w. ISSN 2397-3366. S2CID 259720877.
7. ^ "400 Quadrillion Times Brighter Than the Sun – Scientists Detect Most Energetic Ultraviolet/Optical Flare Ever". SciTechDaily. September 14, 2023. Retrieved September 18, 2023.

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